This book contains the substance of the lectures originally given at the Washington University, St. Louis, in May, 1887, in the course of my annual visit to that institution as University Professor of American History. The lectures were repeated in the following month of June at Portland, Oregon, and since then either the whole course, or one or more of the lectures, have been given in Boston, Newton, Milton, Chelsea, New Bedford, Lowell, Worcester, Springfield, and Pittsfield, Mass.; Farmington, Middletown, and Stamford, Conn.; New York, Brooklyn, and Tarrytown, N.Y.; Philadelphia and Ogontz, Pa.; Wilmington, Del.; Chicago, 111.; San Francisco and Oakland, Cal.
In this sketch of the circumstances which attended the settlement of New England, I have purposely omitted many details which in a formal history of that period would need to be included. It has been my aim to give the outline of such a narrative as to indicate the principles at work in the history of New England down to the Revolution of 1689. When I was writing the lectures I had just been reading, with much interest, the work of my former pupil, Mr. Brooks Adams, entitled "The Emancipation of Massachusetts."
With the specific conclusions set forth in that book I found myself often agreeing, but it seemed to me that the general aspect of the case would be considerably modified and perhaps somewhat more adequately presented by enlarging the field of view. In forming historical judgments a great deal depends upon our perspective. Out of the very imperfect human nature which is so slowly and painfully casting off the original sin of its inheritance from primeval savagery, it is scarcely possible in any age to get a result which will look quite satisfactory to the men of a riper and more enlightened age. Fortunately we can learn something from the stumblings of our forefathers, and a good many things seem quite clear to us to-day which two centuries ago were only beginning to be dimly discerned by a few of the keenest and boldest spirits. The faults of the Puritan theocracy, which found its most complete development in Massachusetts, are so glaring that it is idle to seek to palliate them or to explain them away. But if we would really understand what was going on in the Puritan world of the seventeenth century, and how a better state of things has grown out of it, we must endeavour to distinguish and define the elements of wholesome strength in that theocracy no less than its elements of crudity and weakness.
The first chapter, on "The Roman Idea and the English Idea," contains a somewhat more developed statement of the points briefly indicated in the thirteenth section (pp. 85-95) of "The Destiny of Man." As all of the present book, except the first chapter, was written here under the shadow of the Washington University, I take pleasure in dating it from this charming and hospitable city where I have passed some of the most delightful hours of my life.
St. Louis, April 15, 1889.
NOTES:
CHAPTER I.
THE ROMAN IDEA AND THE ENGLISH IDEA.
When did the Roman Empire come to an end? ... 1-3
Meaning of Odovakar's work ... 3
The Holy Roman Empire ... 4, 5
Gradual shifting of primacy from the men who spoke Latin, and their
descendants, to the men who speak English ... 6-8
Political history is the history of nation-making ... 8, 9
The ORIENTAL method of nation-making; conquest without incorporation
... 9
Illustrations from eastern despotisms ... 10
And from the Moors in Spain ... 11
The ROMAN method of nation-making; conquest with incorporation, but
without representation ... 12
Its slow development ... 13
Vices in the Roman system. ... 14
Its fundamental defect ... 15
It knew nothing of political power delegated by the people to
representatives ... 16
And therefore the expansion of its dominion ended in a centralized
Despotism ... 16
Which entailed the danger that human life might come to stagnate in
Europe, as it had done in Asia ... 17
The danger was warded off by the Germanic invasions, which, however,
threatened to undo the work which the Empire had done in organizing
European society ... 17
But such disintegration was prevented by the sway which the Roman Church
had come to exercise over the European mind ... 18
The wonderful thirteenth century ... 19
The ENGLISH method of nation-making; incorporation with representation
... 20
Pacific tendencies of federalism ... 21
Failure of Greek attempts at federation ... 22
Fallacy of the notion that republics must be small ... 23
"It is not the business of a government to support its people, but of
the people to support their government" ... 24
Teutonic March-meetings and representative assemblies ... 25
Peculiarity of the Teutonic conquest of Britain ... 26, 27
Survival and development of the Teutonic representative assembly in
England ... 28
Primitive Teutonic institutions less modified in England than in Germany
... 29
Some effects of the Norman conquest of England ... 30
The Barons' War and the first House of Commons ... 31
Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty ... 32
Conflict between Roman Idea and English Idea begins to become clearly
visible in the thirteenth century ... 33
Decline of mediaeval Empire and Church with the growth of modern
nationalities ... 34
Overthrow of feudalism, and increasing power of the crown ... 35
Formidable strength of the Roman Idea ... 36
Had it not been for the Puritans, political liberty would probably have
disappeared from the world ... 37
Beginnings of Protestantism in the thirteenth century ... 38
The Cathari, or Puritans of the Eastern Empire ... 39
The Albigenses ... 40
Effects of persecution; its feebleness in England ... 41
Wyclif and the Lollards ... 42
Political character of Henry VIII.'s revolt against Rome ... 43
The yeoman Hugh Latimer ... 44
The moment of Cromwell's triumph was the most critical moment in history
... 45
Contrast with France; fate of the Huguenots ... 46, 47
Victory of the English Idea ... 48
Significance of the Puritan Exodus ... 49
CHAPTER II.
THE PURITAN EXODUS.
Influence of Puritanism upon modern Europe ... 50, 51
Work of the Lollards ... 52
They made the Bible the first truly popular literature in England ...
53, 54
The English version of the Bible ... 54, 55
Secret of Henry VIII.'s swift success in his revolt against Rome ... 56
Effects of the persecution under Mary ... 57
Calvin's theology in its political bearings ... 58, 59
Elizabeth's policy and its effects ... 60, 61
Puritan sea-rovers ... 61
Geographical distribution of Puritanism in England; it was strongest in
the eastern counties ... 62
Preponderance of East Anglia in the Puritan exodus ... 63
Familiar features of East Anglia to the visitor from New England ... 64
Puritanism was not intentionally allied with liberalism ... 65
Robert Brown and the Separatists ... 66
Persecution of the Separatists ... 67
Recantation of Brown; it was reserved for William Brewster to take the
lead in the Puritan exodus ... 68
James Stuart, and his encounter with Andrew Melville ... 69
What James intended to do when he became King of England ... 70
His view of the political situation, as declared in the conference at
Hampton Court ... 71
The congregation of Separatists at Scrooby ... 72
The flight to Holland, and settlement at Leyden in 1609 ... 73
Systematic legal toleration in Holland ... 74
Why the Pilgrims did not stay there; they wished to keep up their
distinct organization and found a state ... 74
And to do this they must cross the ocean, because European territory was
all preoccupied ... 75
The London and Plymouth companies ... 75
First explorations of the New England coast; Bartholomew Gosnold (1602),
and George Weymouth (1605) ... 76
The Popham colony (1607) ... 77
Captain John Smith gives to New England its name (1614) ... 78
The Pilgrims at Leyden decide to make a settlement near the Delaware
river ... 79
How King James regarded the enterprise ... 80
Voyage of the Mayflower; she goes astray and takes the Pilgrims to Cape
Cod bay ... 81
Founding of the Plymouth colony (1620) ... 82, 83
Why the Indians did not molest the settlers ... 84, 85
The chief interest of this beginning of the Puritan exodus lies not so
much in what it achieved as in what it suggested ... 86, 87
CHAPTER III.
THE PLANTING OF NEW ENGLAND.
Sir Ferdinando Gorges and the Council for New England ... 88, 89
Wessagusset and Merrymount ... 90, 91
The Dorchester adventurers ... 92
John White wishes to raise a bulwark against the Kingdom of Antichrist
... 93
And John Endicott undertakes the work of building it ... 94
Conflicting grants sow seeds of trouble; the Gorges and Mason claims ...
94, 95
Endicott's arrival in New England, and the founding of Salem ... 95
The Company of Massachusetts Bay; Francis Higginson takes a powerful
reinforcement to Salem ... 96
The development of John White's enterprise into the Company of
Massachusetts Bay coincided with the first four years of the reign of
Charles I ... 97
Extraordinary scene in the House of Commons (June 5, 1628) ... 98, 99
The King turns Parliament out of doors (March 2, 1629) ... 100
Desperate nature of the crisis ... 100, 101
The meeting at Cambridge (Aug. 26, 1629), and decision to transfer the
charter of the Massachusetts Bay Company, and the government established
under it, to New England ... 102
Leaders of the great migration; John Winthrop ... 102
And Thomas Dudley ... 103
Founding of Massachusetts; the schemes of Gorges overwhelmed ... 104
Beginnings of American constitutional history; the question as to
self-government raised at Watertown ... 105
Representative system established ... 106
Bicameral assembly; story of the stray pig ... 107
Ecclesiastical polity; the triumph of Separatism ... 108
Restriction of the suffrage to members of the Puritan congregational
churches ... 109
Founding of Harvard College ... 110
Threefold danger to the New England settlers in 1636:—
1. From the King, who prepares to attack the charter, but is foiled by
dissensions at home ... 111-113
2. From religious dissensions; Roger Williams ... 114-116
Henry Vane and Anne Hutchinson ... 116-119
Beginnings of New Hampshire and Rhode Island ... 119-120
3. From the Indians; the Pequot supremacy ... 121
First movements into the Connecticut valley, and disputes with the Dutch
settlers of New Amsterdam ... 122, 123
Restriction of the suffrage leads to disaffection in Massachusetts;
profoundly interesting opinions of Winthrop and Hooker ... 123, 124
Connecticut pioneers and their hardships ... 125
Thomas Hooker, and the founding of Connecticut ... 120
The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (Jan 14, 1639); the first written
constitution that created a government ... 127
Relations of Connecticut to the genesis of the Federal Union ... 128
Origin of the Pequot War; Sassacus tries to unite the Indian tribes in a
crusade against the English ... 129, 130
The schemes of Sassacus are foiled by Roger Williams ... 130
The Pequots take the war path alone ... 131
And are exterminated ... 132-134
John Davenport, and the founding of New Haven ... 135
New Haven legislation, and legend of the "Blue Laws" ... 136
With the meeting of the Long Parliament, in 1640, the Puritan exodus
comes to its end ... 137
What might have been ... 138, 391
CHAPTER IV. — THE NEW ENGLAND CONFEDERACY.
The Puritan exodus was purely and exclusively English ... 140
And the settlers were all thrifty and prosperous; chiefly country
squires and yeomanry of the best and sturdiest type ... 141, 142
In all history there has been no other instance of colonization so
exclusively effected by picked and chosen men ... 143
What, then, was the principle of selection? The migration was not
intended to promote what we call religious liberty ... 144, 145
Theocratic ideal of the Puritans ... 146
The impulse which sought to realize itself in the Puritan ideal was an
ethical impulse ... 147
In interpreting Scripture, the Puritan appealed to his Reason ... 148,
149
Value of such perpetual theological discussion as was carried on in
early New England ... 150, 151
Comparison with the history of Scotland ... 152
Bearing of these considerations upon the history of the New England
confederacy ... 153
The existence of so many colonies (Plymouth, Massachusetts, Connecticut,
New Haven, Rhode Island, the Piscataqua towns, etc.) was due to
differences of opinion on questions in which men's religious ideas were
involved ... 154
And this multiplication of colonies led to a notable and significant
attempt at confederation ... 155
Turbulence of dissent in Rhode Island ... 156
The Earl of Warwick, and his Board of Commissioners ... 157
Constitution of the Confederacy ... 158
It was only a league, not a federal union ... 159
Its formation involved a tacit assumption of sovereignty ... 160
The fall of Charles I. brought up, for a moment, the question as to the
supremacy of Parliament over the colonies ... 161
Some interesting questions ... 162
Genesis of the persecuting spirit ... 163
Samuel Gorton and his opinions ... 163-165
He flees to Aquedneck and is banished thence ... 166
Providence protests against him ... 167
He flees to Shawomet, where he buys land of the Indians ... 168
Miantonomo and Uncas ... 169, 170
Death of Miantonomo ... 171
Edward Johnson leads an expedition against Shawomet ... 172
Trial and sentence of the heretics ... 173
Winthrop declares himself in a prophetic opinion ... 174
The Presbyterian cabal ... 175-177
The Cambridge Platform; deaths of Winthrop and Cotton ... 177
Views of Winthrop and Cotton as to toleration in matters of Religion ...
178
After their death, the leadership in Massachusetts was in the hands of
Endicott and Norton ... 179
The Quakers; their opinions and behavior ... 179-181
Violent manifestations of dissent ... 182
Anne Austin and Mary Fisher; how they were received in Boston ... 183
The confederated colonies seek to expel the Quakers; noble attitude of
Rhode Island ... 184
Roger Williams appeals to his friend, Oliver Cromwell ... 185
The "heavenly speech" of Sir Harry Vane ... 185
Laws passed against the Quakers ... 186
How the death penalty was regarded at that time in New England ... 187
Executions of Quakers on Boston Common ... 188, 189
Wenlock Christison's defiance and victory ... 189, 190
The "King's Missive" ... 191
Why Charles II. interfered to protect the Quakers ... 191
His hostile feeling toward the New England governments ... 192
The regicide judges, Goffe and Whalley ... 193, 194
New Haven annexed to Connecticut ... 194, 195
Abraham Pierson, and the founding of Newark ... 196
Breaking-down of the theocratic policy ... 197
Weakening of the Confederacy ... 198
CHAPTER V. — KING PHILIP'S WAR.
Relations between the Puritan settlers and the Indians ... 199
Trade with the Indians ... 200
Missionary work; Thomas Mayhew ... 201
John Eliot and his translation of the Bible ... 202
His preaching to the Indians ... 203
His villages of Christian Indians ... 204
The Puritan's intention was to deal gently and honourably with the red
men ... 205
Why Pennsylvania was so long unmolested by the Indians ... 205, 206
Difficulty of the situation in New England ... 207
It is hard for the savage and the civilized man to understand one
another ... 208
How Eliot's designs must inevitably have been misinterpreted by the
Indians ... 209
It is remarkable that peace should have been so long preserved ... 210
Deaths of Massasoit and his son Alexander ... 211
Very little is known about the nature of Philip's designs ... 212
The meeting at Taunton ... 213
Sausamon informs against Philip ... 213
And is murdered ... 214
Massacres at Swanzey and Dartmouth ... 214
Murder of Captain Hutchinson ... 215
Attack on Brookfield, which is relieved by Simon Willard ... 216
Fighting in the Connecticut valley; the mysterious stranger at Hadley
... 217, 218
Ambuscade at Bloody Brook ... 219
Popular excitement in Boston ... 220
The Narragansetts prepare to take the war-path ... 221
And Governor Winslow leads an army against them ... 222, 223
Storming of the great swamp fortress ... 224
Slaughter of the Indians ... 225
Effect of the blow ... 226
Growth of the humane sentiment in recent times, due to the fact that the
horrors of war are seldom brought home to everybody's door ... 227, 228
Warfare with savages is likely to be truculent in character ... 229
Attack upon Lancaster ... 230
Mrs. Rowlandson's narrative ... 231-233
Virtual extermination of the Indians (February to August, 1676) ... 233,
234
Death of Canonchet ... 234
Philip pursued by Captain Church ... 235
Death of Philip ... 236
Indians sold into slavery ... 237
Conduct of the Christian Indians ... 238
War with the Tarratines ... 239
Frightful destruction of life and property ... 240
Henceforth the red man figures no more in the history of New England,
except in frontier raids under French guidance ... 241
CHAPTER VI.
THE TYRANNY OF ANDROS.
Romantic features in the early history of New England ... 242
Captain Edward Johnson, of Woburn, and his book on "The Wonder-working
Providence of Zion's Saviour in New England" ... 243,244
Acts of the Puritans often judged by an unreal and impossible standard
... 245
Spirit of the "Wonder-working Providence" ... 246
Merits and faults of the Puritan theocracy ... 247
Restriction of the suffrage to church members ... 248
It was a source of political discontent ... 249
Inquisitorial administration of justice ... 250
The "Half way Covenant" ... 251
Founding of the Old South church ... 252
Unfriendly relations between Charles II and Massachusetts ... 253
Complaints against Massachusetts ... 254
The Lords of Trade ... 255
Arrival of Edward Randolph in Boston ... 256
Joseph Dudley and the beginnings of Toryism in New England ... 257, 258
Charles II. erects the four Piscataqua towns into the royal province of
New Hampshire ... 259
And quarrels with Massachusetts over the settlement of the Gorges claim
to the Maine district ... 260
Simon Bradstreet and his verse-making wife ... 261
Massachusetts answers the king's peremptory message ... 262
Secret treaty between Charles II. and Louis XIV ... 263
Shameful proceedings in England ... 264
Massachusetts refuses to surrender her charter; and accordingly it is
annulled by decree of chancery, June 21, 1684 ... 265
Effect of annulling the charter ... 266
Death of Charles II, accession of James II., and appointment of Sir
Edmund Andros as viceroy over New England, with despotic powers ... 267
The charter oak ... 268
Episcopal services in Boston ... 268, 269
Founding of the King's Chapel ... 269
The tyranny ... 270
John Wise of Ipswich ... 271
Fall of James II ... 271
Insurrection in Boston, and overthrow of Andros ... 272
Effects of the Revolution of 1689 ... 273
Need for union among all the northern colonies ... 274
Plymouth, Maine, and Acadia annexed to Massachusetts ... 275
Which becomes a royal province ... 276
And is thus brought into political sympathy with Virginia ... 276
The seeds of the American Revolution were already sown, and the spirit
of 1776 was foreshadowed in 1689 ... 277, 278
It used to be the fashion of historians, looking superficially at the facts presented in chronicles and tables of dates, without analyzing and comparing vast groups of facts distributed through centuries, or even suspecting the need for such analysis and comparison, to assign the date 476 A.D. as the moment at which the Roman Empire came to an end. It was in that year that the soldier of fortune, Odovakar, commander of the Herulian mercenaries in Italy, sent the handsome boy Romulus, son of Orestes, better known as "little Augustus," from his imperial throne to the splendid villa of Lucullus near Naples, and gave him a yearly pension of $35,000 [6,000 solidi] to console him for the loss of a world. As 324 years elapsed before another emperor was crowned at Rome, and as the political headship of Europe after that happy restoration remained upon the German soil to which the events of the eighth century had shifted it, nothing could seem more natural than the habit which historians once had, of saying that the mighty career of Rome had ended, as it had begun, with a Romulus. Sometimes the date 476 was even set up as a great landmark dividing modern from ancient history. For those, however, who took such a view, it was impossible to see the events of the Middle Ages in their true relations to what went before and what came after. It was impossible to understand what went on in Italy in the sixth century, or to explain the position of that great Roman power which had its centre on the Bosphorus, which in the code of Justinian left us our grandest monument of Roman law, and which for a thousand years was the staunch bulwark of Europe against the successive aggressions of Persian, Saracen, and Turk. It was equally impossible to understand the rise of the Papal power, the all-important politics of the great Saxon and Swabian emperors, the relations of mediaeval England to the Continental powers, or the marvellously interesting growth of the modern European system of nationalities. [[Sidenote: When did the Roman Empire come to an end?]
Since the middle of the nineteenth century the study of history has undergone changes no less sweeping than those which have in the same time affected the study of the physical sciences. Vast groups of facts distributed through various ages and countries have been subjected to comparison and analysis, with the result that they have not only thrown fresh light upon one another, but have in many cases enabled us to recover historic points of view that had long been buried in oblivion. Such an instance was furnished about twenty-five years ago by Dr. Bryce's epoch-making work on the Holy Roman Empire. Since then historians still recognize the importance of the date 476 as that which left the Bishop of Rome the dominant personage in Italy, and marked the shifting of the political centre of gravity from the Palatine to the Lateran. This was one of those subtle changes which escape notice until after some of their effects have attracted attention. The most important effect, in this instance, realized after three centuries, was not the overthrow of Roman power in the West, but its indefinite extension and expansion. The men of 476 not only had no idea that they were entering upon a new era, but least of all did they dream that the Roman Empire had come to an end, or was ever likely to. Its cities might be pillaged, its provinces overrun, but the supreme imperial power itself was something without which the men of those days could not imagine the world as existing. It must have its divinely ordained representative in one place if not in another. If the throne in Italy was vacant, it was no more than had happened before; there was still a throne at Constantinople, and to its occupant Zeno the Roman Senate sent a message, saying that one emperor was enough for both ends of the earth, and begging him to confer upon the gallant Odovakar the title of patrician, and entrust the affairs of Italy to his care. So when Sicambrian Chlodwig set up his Merovingian kingdom in northern Gaul, he was glad to array himself in the robe of a Roman consul, and obtain from the eastern emperor a formal ratification of his rule.
[Transcriber's note: page missing in original.] still survives in political methods and habits of thought that will yet be long in dying out. With great political systems, as with typical forms of organic life, the processes of development and of extinction are exceedingly slow, and it is seldom that the stages can be sharply marked by dates. The processes which have gradually shifted the seat of empire until the prominent part played nineteen centuries ago by Rome and Alexandria, on opposite sides of the Mediterranean, has been at length assumed by London and New York, on opposite sides of the Atlantic, form a most interesting subject of study. But to understand them, one must do much more than merely catalogue the facts of political history; one must acquire a knowledge of the drifts and tendencies of human thought and feeling and action from the earliest ages to the times in which we live. In covering so wide a field we cannot of course expect to obtain anything like complete results. In order to make a statement simple enough to be generally intelligible, it is necessary to pass over many circumstances and many considerations that might in one way and another qualify what we have to say. Nevertheless it is quite possible for us to discern, in their bold general outlines, some historic truths of supreme importance. In contemplating the salient features of the change which has now for a long time been making the world more English and less Roman, we shall find not only intellectual pleasure and profit but practical guidance. For in order to understand this slow but mighty change, we must look a little into that process of nation-making which has been going on since prehistoric ages and is going on here among us to-day, and from the recorded experience of men in times long past we may gather lessons of infinite value for ourselves and for our children's children. As in all the achievements of mankind it is only after much weary experiment and many a heart-sickening failure that success is attained, so has it been especially with nation-making. Skill in the political art is the fruit of ages of intellectual and moral discipline; and just as picture-writing had to come before printing and canoes before steamboats, so the cruder political methods had to be tried and found wanting, amid the tears and groans of unnumbered generations, before methods less crude could be put into operation. In the historic survey upon which we are now to enter, we shall see that the Roman Empire represented a crude method of nation-making which began with a masterful career of triumph over earlier and cruder methods, but has now for several centuries been giving way before a more potent and satisfactory method. And just as the merest glance at the history of Europe shows us Germanic peoples wresting the supremacy from Rome, so in this deeper study we shall discover a grand and far-reaching Teutonic Idea of political life overthrowing and supplanting the Roman Idea. Our attention will be drawn toward England as the battle-ground and the seventeenth century as the critical moment of the struggle; we shall see in Puritanism the tremendous militant force that determined the issue; and when our perspective has thus become properly adjusted, we shall begin to realize for the first time how truly wonderful was the age that witnessed the Beginnings of New England. We have long had before our minds the colossal figure of Roman Julius as "the foremost man of all this world," but as the seventeenth century recedes into the past the figure of English Oliver begins to loom up as perhaps even more colossal. In order to see these world-events in their true perspective, and to make perfectly clear the manner in which we are to estimate them, we must go a long distance away from them. We must even go back, as nearly as may be, to the beginning of things. [[Sidenote: Gradual shifting of primacy from the men who spoke Latin, and their descendants, to the men who speak English]
If we look back for a moment to the primitive stages of society, we may picture to ourselves the surface of the earth sparsely and scantily covered with wandering tribes of savages, rude in morals and manners, narrow and monotonous in experience, sustaining life very much as lower animals sustain it, by gathering wild fruits or slaying wild game, and waging chronic warfare alike with powerful beasts and with rival tribes of men. [[Sidenote: Political history is the history of nation-making]
In the widest sense the subject of political history is the description of the processes by which, under favourable circumstances, innumerable such primitive tribes have become welded together into mighty nations, with elevated standards of morals and manners, with wide and varied experience, sustaining life and ministering to human happiness by elaborate arts and sciences, and putting a curb upon warfare by limiting its scope, diminishing its cruelty, and interrupting it by intervals of peace. The story, as laid before us in the records of three thousand years, is fascinating and absorbing in its human interest for those who content themselves with the study of its countless personal incidents, and neglect its profound philosophical lessons. But for those who study it in the scientific spirit, the human interest of its details becomes still more intensely fascinating and absorbing. Battles and coronations, poems and inventions, migrations and martyrdoms, acquire new meanings and awaken new emotions as we begin to discern their bearings upon the solemn work of ages that is slowly winning for humanity a richer and more perfect life. By such meditation upon men's thoughts and deeds is the understanding purified, till we become better able to comprehend our relations to the world and the duty that lies upon each of us to shape his conduct rightly.
In the welding together of primitive shifting tribes into stable and powerful nations, we can seem to discern three different methods that have been followed at different times and places, with widely different results. In all cases the fusion has been effected by war, but it has gone on in three broadly contrasted ways. The first of these methods, which has been followed from time immemorial in the Oriental world, may be roughly described as conquest without incorporation. A tribe grows to national dimensions by conquering and annexing its neighbours, without admitting them to a share in its political life. Probably there is always at first some incorporation, or even perhaps some crude germ of federative alliance; but this goes very little way,—only far enough to fuse together a few closely related tribes, agreeing in speech and habits, into a single great tribe that can overwhelm its neighbours. In early society this sort of incorporation cannot go far without being stopped by some impassable barrier of language or religion. After reaching that point, the conquering tribe simply annexes its neighbours and makes them its slaves. It becomes a superior caste, ruling over vanquished peoples, whom it oppresses with frightful cruelty, while living on the fruits of their toil in what has been aptly termed Oriental luxury. Such has been the origin of many eastern despotisms, in the valleys of the Nile and Euphrates, and elsewhere. Such a political structure admits of a very considerable development of material civilization, in which gorgeous palaces and artistic temples may be built, and perhaps even literature and scholarship rewarded, with money wrung from millions of toiling wretches. There is that sort of brutal strength in it, that it may endure for many long ages, until it comes into collision with some higher civilization. Then it is likely to end in sudden collapse, because the fighting quality of the people has been destroyed. Populations that have lived for centuries in fear of impalement or crucifixion, and have known no other destination for the products of their labour than the clutches of the omnipresent tax-gatherer, are not likely to furnish good soldiers. A handful of freemen will scatter them like sheep, as the Greeks did twenty-three centuries ago at Kynaxa, as the English did the other day at Tel el-Kebir. On the other hand, where the manliness of the vanquished people is not crushed, the sway of the conquerors who cannot enter into political union with them is likely to be cast off, as in the case of the Moors in Spain. There was a civilization in many respects admirable. It was eminent for industry, science, art, and poetry; its annals are full of romantic interest; it was in some respects superior to the Christian system which supplanted it; in many ways it contributed largely to the progress of the human race; and it was free from some of the worst vices of Oriental civilizations. Yet because of the fundamental defect that between the Christian Spaniard and his Mussulman conqueror there could be no political fusion, this brilliant civilization was doomed. During eight centuries of more or less extensive rule in the Spanish peninsula, the Moor was from first to last an alien, just as after four centuries the Turk is still an alien in the Balkan peninsula. The natural result was a struggle that lasted age after age till it ended in the utter extermination of one of the parties, and left behind it a legacy of hatred and persecution that has made the history of modern Spain a dismal record of shame and disaster. [[Sidenote: The Oriental method of nation-making]
In this first method of nation-making, then, which we may call the Oriental method, one now sees but little to commend. It was better than savagery, and for a long time no more efficient method was possible, but the leading peoples of the world have long since outgrown it; and although the resulting form of political government is the oldest we know and is not yet extinct, it nevertheless has not the elements of permanence. Sooner or later it will disappear, as savagery is disappearing, as the rudest types of inchoate human society have disappeared.
The second method by which nations have been made may be called the Roman method; and we may briefly describe it as conquest with incorporation, but without representation. The secret of Rome's wonderful strength lay in the fact that she incorporated the vanquished peoples into her own body politic. In the early time there was a fusion of tribes going on in Latium, which, if it had gone no further, would have been similar to the early fusion of Ionic tribes in Attika or of Iranian tribes in Media. But whereas everywhere else this political fusion soon stopped, in the Roman world it went on. One after another Italian tribes and Italian towns were not merely overcome but admitted to a share in the political rights and privileges of the victors. By the time this had gone on until the whole Italian peninsula was consolidated under the headship of Rome, the result was a power incomparably greater than any other that the world had yet seen. Never before had so many people been brought under one government without making slaves of most of them. Liberty had existed before, whether in barbaric tribes or in Greek cities. Union had existed before, in Assyrian or Persian despotisms. Now liberty and union were for the first time joined together, with consequences enduring and stupendous. The whole Mediterranean world was brought under one government; ancient barriers of religion, speech, and custom were overthrown in every direction; and innumerable barbarian tribes, from the Alps to the wilds of northern Britain, from the Bay of Biscay to the Carpathian mountains, were more or less completely transformed into Roman citizens, protected by Roman law, and sharing in the material and spiritual benefits of Roman civilization. Gradually the whole vast structure became permeated by Hellenic and Jewish thought, and thus were laid the lasting foundations of modern society, of a common Christendom, furnished with a common stock of ideas concerning man's relation to God and the world, and acknowledging a common standard of right and wrong. This was a prodigious work, which raised human life to a much higher plane than that which it had formerly occupied, and endless gratitude is due to the thousands of steadfast men who in one way or another devoted their lives to its accomplishment. [[Sidenote: The Roman method of nation-making]
This Roman method of nation-making had nevertheless its fatal shortcomings, and it was only very slowly, moreover, that it wrought out its own best results. It was but gradually that the rights and privileges of Roman citizenship were extended over the whole Roman world, and in the mean time there were numerous instances where conquered provinces seemed destined to no better fate than had awaited the victims of Egyptian or Assyrian conquest. The rapacity and cruelty of Caius Verres could hardly have been outdone by the worst of Persian satraps; but there was a difference. A moral sense and political sense had been awakened which could see both the wickedness and the folly of such conduct. The voice of a Cicero sounded with trumpet tones against the oppressor, who was brought to trial and exiled for deeds which under the Oriental system, from the days of Artaxerxes to those of the Grand Turk, would scarcely have called forth a reproving word. It was by slow degrees that the Roman came to understand the virtues of his own method, and learned to apply it consistently until the people of all parts of the empire were, in theory at least, equal before the law. In theory, I say, for in point of fact there was enough of viciousness in the Roman system to prevent it from achieving permanent success. Historians have been fond of showing how the vitality of the whole system was impaired by wholesale slave-labour, by the false political economy which taxes all for the benefit of a few, by the debauching view of civil office which regards it as private perquisite and not as public trust, and—worst of all, perhaps—by the communistic practice of feeding an idle proletariat out of the imperial treasury. The names of these deadly social evils are not unfamiliar to American ears. Even of the last we have heard ominous whispers in the shape of bills to promote mendicancy under the specious guise of fostering education or rewarding military services. And is it not a striking illustration of the slowness with which mankind learns the plainest rudiments of wisdom and of justice, that only in the full light of the nineteenth century, and at the cost of a terrible war, should the most intelligent people on earth have got rid of a system of labour devised in the crudest ages of antiquity and fraught with misery to the employed, degradation to the employers, and loss to everybody? [[Sidenote: Its slow development]
These evils, we see, in one shape or another, have existed almost everywhere; and the vice of the Roman system did not consist in the fact that under it they were fully developed, but in the fact that it had no adequate means of overcoming them. Unless helped by something supplied from outside the Roman world, civilization must have succumbed to these evils, the progress of mankind must have been stopped. What was needed was the introduction of a fierce spirit of personal liberty and local self-government. The essential vice of the Roman system was that it had been unable to avoid weakening the spirit of personal independence and crushing out local self-government among the peoples to whom it had been applied. It owed its wonderful success to joining Liberty with Union, but as it went on it found itself compelled gradually to sacrifice Liberty to Union, strengthening the hands of the central government and enlarging its functions more and more, until by and by the political life of the several parts had so far died away that, under the pressure of attack from without, the Union fell to pieces and the whole political system had to be slowly and painfully reconstructed.
Now if we ask why the Roman government found itself thus obliged to sacrifice personal liberty and local independence to the paramount necessity of holding the empire together, the answer will point us to the essential and fundamental vice of the Roman method of nation-making. It lacked the principle of representation. The old Roman world knew nothing of representative assemblies. [[Sidenote: It knew nothing of representation]
Its senates were assemblies of notables, constituting in the main an aristocracy of men who had held high office; its popular assemblies were primary assemblies,—town-meetings. There was no notion of such a thing as political power delegated by the people to representatives who were to wield it away from home and out of sight of their constituents. The Roman's only notion of delegated power was that of authority delegated by the government to its generals and prefects who discharged at a distance its military and civil functions. When, therefore, the Roman popular government, originally adapted to a single city, had come to extend itself over a large part of the world, it lacked the one institution by means of which government could be carried on over so vast an area without degenerating into despotism. [[Sidenote: And therefore ended in despotism]
Even could the device of representation have occurred to the mind of some statesman trained in Roman methods, it would probably have made no difference. Nobody would have known how to use it. You cannot invent an institution as you would invent a plough. Such a notion as that of representative government must needs start from small beginnings and grow in men's minds until it should become part and parcel of their mental habits. For the want of it the home government at Rome became more and more unmanageable until it fell into the hands of the army, while at the same time the administration of the empire became more and more centralized; the people of its various provinces, even while their social condition was in some respects improved, had less and less voice in the management of their local affairs, and thus the spirit of personal independence was gradually weakened. This centralization was greatly intensified by the perpetual danger of invasion on the northern and eastern frontiers, all the way from the Rhine to the Euphrates. Do what it would, the government must become more and more a military despotism, must revert toward the Oriental type. The period extending from the third century before Christ to the third century after was a period of extraordinary intellectual expansion and moral awakening; but when we observe the governmental changes introduced under the emperor Diocletian at the very end of this period, we realize how serious had been the political retrogression, how grave the danger that the stream of human life might come to stagnate in Europe, as it had long since stagnated in Asia.