Contents
Cover
About the Book
About the Author
Also by Edith Hall
Maps
Dedication
Title Page
Epigraph
Preface
Timeline
Introduction: Ten Characteristics of the Ancient Greeks
1. Seafaring Mycenaeans
2. The Creation of Greece
3. Frogs and Dolphins Round the Pond
4. Inquiring Ionians
5. The Open Society of Athens
6. Spartan Inscrutability
7. The Rivalrous Macedonians
8. God-Kings and Libraries
9. Greek Minds and Roman Power
10. Pagan Greeks and Christians
A Note on Sources
Suggestions for Further Reading
Acknowledgments
Index
Copyright
I would like to thank Maria Guarnaschelli and Mitchell Kohles at Norton for their enthusiasm for the project and unending patience. Janet Byrne was a superlative copy-editor who improved the book enormously. I would also like to thank Katherine Ailes at Random House for her thoughtful and meticulous editorial work. Paul Cartledge’s incisive and humorous comments on the whole book proved indispensable, although I have stubbornly not heeded his advice on every single occasion. My father, Stuart Hall, read the last chapter in detail and provided me with invaluable suggestions for improving it. My mother, Brenda Hall, helped me with gathering the data for the maps and timeline. Valeria Vitale designed the maps. R. Ross Holloway and Laura Monros-Gaspar lent generous assistance with tracking down images. Yana Sistovari has been an unfailingly sympathetic and entertaining companion on visits to archaeological sites. My views on the ancient Greeks have developed in lively discussion with students over the last twenty-five years at the universities of Cambridge, Reading, Oxford, Durham, and Royal Holloway and at King’s College, London. I thank them all. But the book could not have been written without the day-to-day support and encouragement of my husband, Richard Poynder, and the humorous commentary of our children, Sarah and Georgia.
Edith Hall is one of Britain’s foremost classicists, having held posts at the universities of Royal Holloway, Cambridge, Durham, Reading, and Oxford. In 2015 she was awarded the Erasmus Medal of the European Academy, given to a scholar whose works represent a significant contribution to European culture and scientific achievement. She is the first woman to win this award.
Hall regularly writes in the Times Literary Supplement, reviews theatre productions on radio, and has written and edited more than a dozen works on the ancient world. She teaches at King’s College London and lives in Gloucestershire.
Who were the ancient Greeks?
They gave us democracy, philosophy, poetry, rational science, the joke. But what was it that enabled them to achieve so much?
The ancient Greeks were a geographically disparate people whose civilization lasted over twenty centuries – and that made us who we are today. And here Edith Hall gives us a revelatory way of viewing this scattered people, identifying ten unique personality traits that she shows to be unique and central to the widespread ancient Greeks.
Hall introduces a people who are inquisitive, articulate and open-minded but also rebellious, individualistic, competitive and hedonistic. They prize excellence above all things but love to laugh. And, central to their identity, they are seafarers whose relationship with the sea underpins every aspect of their society.
Expertly researched and elegantly told, this indispensable introduction unveils a civilization of incomparable richness and a people of astounding complexity.
Inventing the Barbarian
The Theatrical Cast of Athens
Cultural Responses to the Persian Wars
The Return of Ulysses
New Directions in Ancient Pantomime
(with Rosie Wyles)
Greek Tragedy
Ancient Slavery and Abolition
Adventures with Iphigenia in Tauris
TRANSLATOR/EDITOR
Medea and Other Plays
(with James Morwood)
Persians
I have drawn on the work of many scholars during my research into the ancient Greek world, and some of that work is included in the suggestions for further reading below. The translations from ancient Greek authors are almost all my own, but in a few cases I have used others’ translations.
On page 94, the description of the riotous symposium at Akragas is by an ancient writer, Athenaeus, and the translation of his Deipnosophistae 2.37 is that of Charles Burton Gulick in the Loeb Classical Library version of Athenaeus, vol. 1 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1927). The metaphors “half seas over” and “ship came in” are those of W. J. Slater, in “Symposium at Sea,” Harvard Studies in Classical Philolog y 80 (1976): 161–70.
On page 116, the definition of a philosophical paradox is that of Charles A. Kahn, in “The Thesis of Parmenides,” Review of Metaphysics 22 (1969): 720. The description of the ancient Mediterranean world as a “mosaic of highly individual and distinctive cultures” on page 122 is that of Amélie Kuhrt, in “‘Greeks’ and ‘Greece’ in Mesopotamian and Persian Perspectives,” The Twenty-First J. L. Myres Memorial Lecture (Oxford: Leopard’s Head Press, 2002), 9–10. The suggestion on page 138 that the Athenian Council “could thus have contained a fair cross-section of the citizen body” comes from P. J. Rhodes, The Athenian Boule (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), 4. Paul Cartledge defines the Sparta of the mid-fourth century BC as “reduced to the status of a mere Peloponnesian squabbler,” which I quote on page 163, in his Agesilaos and the Crisis of Sparta (London: Duckworth, 1986), 3. The description of the hoplite’s sense of purpose on page 174 is that of Victor Hanson, in The Western Way of War (New York: Knopf, 1989), 220. Larry Tritle considers the possibility that ancient Spartans sometimes suffered from PTSD in “Xenophon, Clearchus and PTSD,” in Christopher Tuplin, ed., Xenophon and His World (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2004). Richard Owen’s praise of Aristotle’s zoology, quoted on page 195, is from Richard Owen, The Hunterian Lectures in Comparative Anatomy (May and June 1837), edited by Phillip Reid Sloan (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 91. The translation of Galen on page 234 is a passage from his treatise On Examinations by Which the Best Physicians Are Recognized. The passage is preserved only in an Arabic version, here reproduced from the English translation of Albert Z. Iskandar, De optimo medico cognoscendo (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1988), 103–5. Tessa Rajak’s praise of Josephus’s readability and appeal, on page 248, is quoted from Josephus, 2nd edition (London: Bristol Classical Press, 2002), 9. G. W. Bowersock’s remark about Hellenism on page 250 is quoted from his Hellenism in Late Antiquity (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996), 7.
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To My Family
—As some grave Tyrian trader, from the sea,
Descried at sunrise an emerging prow
Lifting the cool-hair’d creepers stealthily,
The fringes of a southward-facing brow
Among the Aegean isles;
And saw the merry Grecian coaster come,
Freighted with amber grapes, and Chian wine,
Green bursting figs, and tunnies steep’d in brine;
And knew the intruders on his ancient home,
The young light-hearted Masters of the waves . . .
—MATTHEW ARNOLD, The Scholar Gypsy, 231–40
The page references in this index correspond to the printed edition from which this ebook was created. To find a specific word or phrase from the index, please use the search feature of your ebook reader.
Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations.
Abdera, 100, 108, 118, 156
abstract concepts, Greeks and, 110, 111, 115, 116
Academy, xxvi, 20, 144, 153, 155, 194, 225
Achaean League, 197, 230, 231
Achaeans, 21, 55, 56, 78
Achaemenids, 117, 122, 188
Acharnae, 141, 147
Achilles, 21, 31, 36, 46, 47, 52, 53, 54–5, 57, 60–1, 62, 116, 219
Acropolis, 128, 131, 132, 138, 141, 142–3, 153
Actium, battle of (31 BC), xxviii, 246
Acts of Andrew (apocryphal), 266
Acts of the Apostles, 256, 257–8
Ada, 186
Adonis, 141, 218
Aegeus, King, 146
Aegina, 59, 95, 223
Aeolians, 47, 67
Aeschines, 191
Aeschylus, xxvi, 5, 119–20, 130–6, 142, 143–4, 146, 175, 256
Against Games and Theatrical Entertainment (John Chrysostom), 271
Against the Christians (Porphyry), 265
Agamemnon, King of Mycenae, 6, 31, 34, 43, 52, 53, 54, 78, 136, 163, 169, 172
Agamemnon (Aeschylus), 136, 143–4
Agatharchides, 224
Agathocleia, Bactrian Queen, 201
Agathocles, 199
Agesilaus (Xenophon), 165–6
Agesilaus II, King of Sparta, 165–6, 189
agoge (education), 162–3
agon (struggle), 21
Airs, Waters and Places (Hippocrates), 7–8
Aitia (Callimachus), 215, 216
Akkadians, xiv
Akragas, 86–7, 92, 114
Akrotiri, 28, 34–5
Albania, 185
Albinus, Aulus Postumius, 232
Alcaeus, 89–90, 91
Alcestis (Euripides), 92
Alcibiades, 147, 151
Alcmaeonids, 131, 134, 142
Alcman, 90, 167, 168, 172, 178
Alexander III, “the Great,” King of Macedonia, xiv, xxvii, 1, 57, 180, 181, 182, 184, 202, 207, 224, 261
Aristotle as tutor to, xxvi, 183, 193–4, 196
character of, 183, 186, 188
conquests of, xxvii, 183, 185–7
death of, xxvii, 183, 187–8, 196, 206
divinity claimed by, 187, 188, 189, 190, 209
military genius of, 183, 185
Persian customs adopted by, 188
tomb of, 207, 213
“Alexander mosaic,” Pompeii, 197
Alexander Romance, 189
Alexandreis (Gautier de Châtillon), 248
Alexandria, 187, 204, 209, 234, 246, 248
Alexander’s tomb at, 207, 213
Dionysiac festival at, 209–10
earthquake in, 227
as intellectual and cultural center, 206, 207, 211, 212–13, 222, 223, 227 Jews in, 206, 248, 255, 256
library of, xxvii, 21, 205–6, 208, 211, 212–14, 216, 221–3, 224, 227, 260
Pharos lighthouse at, 204, 211
Almagest (Ptolemy), 225
alphabets:
Greek/Phoenician, xiii, xxv, 14, 24, 25, 45, 53, 54, 103
Linear A, 33, 34
Linear B, xxv, 32, 34, 36–7, 39, 40, 43, 49, 64
Alpheus, 82
Alyattes, King of Lydia, 112
Amasia, 240
Amun-Re, 217
Amyclae, sanctuary of Apollo at, 168–9, 171, 178
Amyntas III, King of Macedonia, 182, 193, 194
Anabasis (Xenophon), 161
Anacreon, 91
analogy, Greek love of, 16
Anatolia, 104, 117, 122, 192, 199, 201, 267
Anaxagoras, 118, 129
Anaximander, 102, 103, 104, 110, 121, 122
Anaximenes, 102
Andria (Terence), 226
Andromache, 60
anoixis (opening), 18
Antaea, Queen of Tiryns, 42
Antigonus, King of Macedonia, xxvii, 198, 199, 205, 207
Antioch, xxvii, xxviii, 24, 95, 198, 246, 248, 259, 267, 270–3
Antiochus IV, Seleucid King, 255–6
Antipater, 188, 197, 198, 205
anti-Semitism, 248
Apelles, 193
Aphrodite, 25, 38, 69, 90, 104–5, 128, 190, 208, 219
Apis, 207
Apocrypha, 267
Apollo, 38, 48, 59, 83–4, 87, 94, 116, 164, 167, 170, 177, 237, 272, 275
Delian sanctuary of, 58–9
Delphic sanctuary of, 78–9, 86, 95, 210
dolphins associated with, 95–6, 97, 98
Homeric hymn to, 57–8
as patron god of medicine, 105–6
Apollo Delphinios, 95–8, 105, 141
Apollonius, 217, 219, 221, 222
Apuleius, 249
Aratus of Soloi, 224
Arcadia, 166, 230, 233
Arcesilas IV, King of Cyrene, 83–4
Archelaus I, 184
Archidamus II, King of Sparta, 147
Archilochus, 8, 88–9, 92
Archimedes, 224
Ares, 82, 137, 141
arete, see excellence
Arethusa, 82
Arginusae, battle of (406 BC), 152, 154
Argives, 55, 151
Argo, 217, 219
Argonautica (Apollonius), 217, 222
Argonauts, 76, 83–4, 217, 268
Argos, 42, 55, 136, 164, 181–2, 185, 270
Ariadne, 268
Arion, 94
Aristarcha, 97
Aristarchus, 224
Aristides, Aelius, 22, 236–9
Aristoboulos, 189, 255
Aristogeiton, 131
Aristophanes, xxvi, 110–11, 129, 130, 136, 138, 152, 153, 154, 170, 178, 219, 226
Aristotle, xvi, xxvi, xxvii, 1, 17, 20, 61, 84, 108, 156, 162, 171
as Alexander’s tutor, xxvi, 183, 193–4, 196
Lyceum of, xxvii, 194, 213, 225
philosophy of, 193–6
Armenia, xxviii, 201, 254, 266
Arrian, xxviii, 189, 241
Artaxerxes IV, King of Persia, 185
Artemidorus of Daldis, 257
Artemis, 21, 37, 57, 82, 90, 96–7, 141, 166, 167, 168, 215, 219, 249, 257–9, 267, 274
Artemisia, 167, 186
Artemis Orthia, temple of, 167, 178
articulacy, Greek, 1, 22–3, 44
Athenians as masters of, 127
flowering of, under Roman rule, 231–2, 233, 236–7, 244, 247–8, 250
Odysseus as exemplar of, 22–3, 61
of Spartans, 178
Asclepius, 106, 234, 236, 237–8
Asia Minor, xiv, 37, 47, 56, 64, 82, 83, 86, 89, 105, 117, 122, 194, 198, 199, 201, 221, 236, 238, 241, 243, 257, 261, 266, 267
Dorian colonies in, 105
Ionian settlements in, see Ionia
Aspasia, 138
Ass (Lucian of Samosata), 249
Assemblywomen (Aristophanes), 153
astronomy, 224–5
Athena, 30, 31, 37, 59, 62, 64, 87, 136, 137, 144, 184, 212, 215, 238, 266
Athena of the Bronze House, 167
Athena Parthenos, 143
Athena Polias, 132, 141, 142
Athens, Athenians, xvi, xxv, xxvi, xxvii, 2, 4, 47, 55, 77, 86, 102–3, 116, 117, 120, 122, 127–57, 183, 193, 198, 206, 213, 245
Assembly of, 130, 137, 138, 144
as center of intellectual innovation, 117–18, 127–30
clans phylai of, 132–3, 139
cosmopolitanism of, 128, 130, 141–2
Council of, 130, 131, 133, 137, 138–9, 154
democratic revolution in, 130
empire of, 135, 143, 148, 151
as exemplars of Greek character, 127
festivals of, 130, 140–1
in Hellenistic era, 225–7
Ionian revolt aided by, 133
law courts in, 136, 137
navy of, 128, 151, 152
oligarchic coups in, xxvi, 152, 154–5
openness to new ideas of, 127–30, 137, 152, 153–4
ostracism by, 133
Paul in, 256–7
in Peloponnesian War, 130, 147–52
Periclean building program in, 142–4, 152
in Persian Wars, 130, 133, 142–3
plague in, 148–9
restoration of democracy in, xxvi, 152
rights of citizens in, 129, 137–8
as seafarers, 127, 128, 129, 134–5
slaves in, 129
Thirty Tyrants regime in, xxvi, 129, 140, 152, 154, 162
see also Attica
athletic competitions, 21–2, 53, 57, 59, 60, 62, 72, 83, 91, 112, 178, 182, 205, 208, 210, 247
atoms, 118, 243
Attalid dynasty, xxvii, 199, 206, 212, 223, 246
Attalos I, King of Pergamum, 223
Attalos II, King of Pergamum, 212
Attica, 128, 144, 162, 166, 238
clans (phylai) of, 132–3
demes of, 132–3, 138, 141
Spartan invasions of, 147, 148
trittyes (thirds) of, 132–3
Attic Mysteries, 129
Augustine, Saint, 12, 265
Augustus, Emperor of Rome, xxviii, 240, 246
authority, Greek suspicion of, 2, 6–7, 8, 44, 51–72, 127
Ba’al, 10, 12, 189
Babylon, 2, 187, 197
Babylonia, Babylonians, xiv, xv, 22, 106–7, 114, 117, 187
Bacchae (Euripides), 38, 44, 209
Bactria, 187, 188, 200–1, 209
Balkans, 117, 121
Basil, Bishop of Caesarea, 270
Bathycles, 168
Battus I, King of Cyrene, 80–1, 83–4, 213
beauty, physical, 22, 45, 89, 91, 142, 168, 178, 179, 275
Bellerophon, 42–3
Bennett, Emmett L., Jr., 36
Berenice I, Queen of Egypt, 207–8, 211
Berenice III, Queen of Egypt, 208–9
Berlin, Isaiah, 123
Berytus, 10
biography, Plutarch and, 244–5
Birds (Aristophanes), 153
Black Sea, xv, xvi, 3, 7, 24, 31, 47, 72, 75, 76, 77, 79, 82, 85, 93, 96, 121, 122, 128, 143, 201, 202, 217, 233, 240, 241, 267
Greek colonies on, 97–8, 104, 105
mixed-Greek tribes of, 82
Boedromia, 141
Boeotia, 55, 63, 64, 133, 144, 244
Bolos of Mendes, 223
Brasidas, 176
Brauron, festival of Artemis at, 141
Bronze Age, 9, 32, 34, 43, 56, 78 see also Mycenaeans
Buddhism, 200, 201
Bulgaria, 185
Bulis, 6
Byblos, 10, 40
Byzantine Empire, 95, 212, 241, 268, 270, 275
Byzantium, 29, 64, 143, 223
Cadiz, 83
Caesar, Julius, 57, 223, 227, 243, 244, 270
Callimachus of Cyrene, 209, 213–7, 218, 221, 222, 274
Calypso, 22–3, 62, 266
Cambyses II, King of Persia, 117
Canaanites, see Phoenicans
Candaules, King of Lydia, 86
Cappadocia, 201, 269–70
Caria, Carians, 48, 56, 86, 185–6
Carneia, 177
Carthage, Carthaginians, xxvii, 10, 12–13, 87, 231
Cassander, King of Macedonia, 197
Catasterisms (Eratosthenes), 224
Catullus, 216, 223
Celsus, 262–4, 275
Chadwick, John, 36
Chaeronea, 244, 245
Chaeronea, battle of (338 BC), xxvii, 182, 184
Chalcis, 47, 79
Characters (Theophrastus), 20
Charon, 110
Charybdis, 62
Chersonesos (Sevastopol), 202
children, in Hellenistic culture, 219
Chimaera, 42
Chios, 37, 47, 58, 166
choregoi, 144–5
Christians, Christianity, 2, 17, 18
Constantine and, xxviii, 254
Greek paganism vs., 2, 253–75
persecution of, 254, 265
spread of, 254, 257, 259
Christians, Christianity, Greek responses to, 253–75
Celsus and, 262–4
and Christian reinterpretation of Greek myths, 267–9
Epictetus and, 260
Galen and, 260
Julian and, 269–70
Lucian and, 261–2
Neoplatonists and, 264–6
Palladas and, 274
and Paul’s preaching, 254–9, 261
and Theodosius’s banning of paganism, 254, 259, 273–4
Chryses, 48
Cilicia, 117, 186
Cimon, 135
Circe, 6, 62, 246, 266
city-states, Greek, 3, 85, 91, 104
independence of, 51, 60, 71
city-states, Phoenician, 10
Clazomenae, 47, 108, 118
Clearchus, 176
Cleis, 8, 89
Cleisthenes, xxvi, 131–2, 134, 137, 140
Cleitarchos, 189
Cleocritus, 140, 141
Cleomenes I, King of Sparta, 131, 132
Cleomenes III, King of Sparta, 178
Cleopatra VII, Queen of Egypt, xxviii, 206, 208, 223, 244, 246
Clouds (Aristophanes), 153
Clytemnestra, 136
Codex Sinaiticus, 259
coinage, 116
of Alexander, 187, 189, 202
in Hellenistic era, 211
Lydian invention of, xiii, 110–12
colonialism, xv
colonies, colonization, Greek, xv, 2, 7, 23–4, 47, 74, 75–99, 104
Delphic oracle’s role in, 79–80
and development of political theory, 120
dolphins associated with, 93–6
foundation myths of, 82–3
identity and customs of mother city maintained by, 77–8
political and economic disruptions caused by, 85
symposia and, 92, 94
Colophon, 47, 103, 112, 123
Columbus, Christopher, 241
comedy, xvi, xxvi, 7, 18–20, 110, 127, 129, 136, 138, 152, 153, 216, 219, 226–7
Comedy of Errors (Shakespeare), 226
Commodus, Emperor of Rome, 234
competitiveness, Greek, 1, 12, 25, 52, 53, 59
of Athenians, 127
dual aspect of, 21
Macedonians as exemplars of, 181–3, 196, 203
Mycenaeans and, 44
and pursuit of excellence, 20–1
Constantine, Emperor of Rome, 254, 265, 269, 271–2
Constantinople, xxviii, 269, 271
Constantius II, Emperor of Rome, 269, 271
Constitution of the Spartans (Xenophon), 161–2, 172
Copernicus, 224–5
Corax, 22–3
Corinth, Corinthians, xxvii, 12, 17, 37, 42, 46, 70, 77, 85–7, 94–5, 127, 146–7, 184, 211, 221
fall of (146 BC), 230, 231, 232
Corinthian League, 184, 185, 188
Corsica, 87
Corupedium, battle of (281 BC), 199
Cos, 106, 219
Council of Nicaea (325 AD), xxviii, 254
Council of the Areopagus, xxvi, 137, 256
Cratesipolis, 191
Crates the Stoic, 223
Cratylus, 155
Creation story, in Hesiod, 67–71
Crete, xxv, 5, 30, 32, 33–4, 45, 49, 55, 79, 94, 154, 193, 227, 270
Critias, 152, 154–5, 162
Critias (Plato), 157
Croesus, xxv, 16, 23, 104
Cronos, 68–70, 141
Croton, 78, 114
Curtius, Quintus, 189
Cybele, 48
Cyclades, 28, 33, 57, 79
Cyclopes, 15, 51, 63, 68, 69, 75
Cylon, 86
Cynics, 5, 20, 225, 249, 261, 265
Cynisca, 170
Cyprus, 10, 46, 69, 128, 167, 198, 207, 210, 225, 268, 270
Cypselus, tyrant of Corinth, 85–6
Cyrene, xxv, 80–4, 129, 207, 208, 209, 213, 216, 217, 222, 224, 227
Cyrus II “the Great,” King of Persia, xxv, 104, 117, 176, 189
Cyzicus, 105
Damascus, 186, 189
Danaans, 55
Daphne, oracle of Apollo at, 272
Daphnis and Chloe (Longus), 218
Dardanians, 56
Darius I, King of Persia, 117, 133, 134, 202
Darius III, King of Persia, 185, 186, 187, 197
“Dark Age,” Greek, 45–9, 77, 84
Das Kapital (Marx), 111
Day Will Come, The (Feuchtwanger), 248
Death of Peregrinus (Lucian), 250, 261–2
Decelea, 132
Deliades, 58
Delian League, 193
Delos, 57–8, 142, 208, 215
Delphi, xv, xxviii, 59, 31, 60, 69–70, 202, 245, 254
dolphins’ association with, 78–9
sanctuary of Apollo at, 78, 86, 95, 96, 210
Delphic oracle, xxviii, 79–80, 95, 163, 171, 177, 275
Demaratus, 163
Demeas, 258–9
demes, 132–3, 134, 139, 141, 142
Demeter, 19–20, 63, 64, 69, 81, 130, 141, 215, 239
Demetrius (Ephesian silversmith), 257–8
Demetrius I Poliorcetes, King of Macedonia, xxvii, 198–200, 207, 210
Demetrius of Phalerum, xxvii, 212–13
democracy, 2, 51, 118, 127, 130, 135, 137–8, 148, 152, 157
Cleisthenes’ introduction of, xxvi, 131–2
openness to new ideas and, 129, 152, 153–4
Democritus, 23–4, 100, 118, 156, 214
Demosthenes, 184, 185, 216, 244
Derveni Papyrus, 190
Deucalion, 36, 67
Dieneces, 159
dikasteria (law courts), 136, 137, 139
Diocletian, 254, 265
Diodorus of Sicily, 187, 229–33, 248
Diogenes, 5, 20, 225
Dionysia, 143–6
Dionysiaca (Nonnus), 268
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 19, 203
Dionysus, 37–8, 65, 89, 93, 94, 97, 98, 110, 144, 145, 184–5, 202, 209–10, 212, 224, 230, 268
Dipylon jug, 25
Dodona, 59
dolphins:
Apollo’s association with, 95–6, 97, 98
colonization associated with, 93–4, 95–6
Delphi’s association with, 78
Dionysus’s association with, 93, 94–5, 98
Poseidon associated with, 94, 98
Domitian, Emperor of Rome, xxviii, 241, 245
Dorian Greeks, 67
Dorians, 47, 78, 88, 95, 105, 106, 122, 132, 151
dyarchy, 163
Dyskolos (Menander), 226–7
Earth (goddess), 37, 67–9
Echelaos, 36–7
Eclogues (Virgil), 218
education, 4, 172
Egypt, Egyptians, xiii–xv, xxvii, xxviii, 3, 10, 52, 66, 117, 121, 123, 187, 197, 241
medicine in, 107
Persian conquest of, 117
Egypt, Ptolemaic, 22, 197, 198, 205–27, 247
cult of Amun-Re in, 217
festivals in, 209–10
humor in, 216–17
Jews in, 255
passion for excellence in, 205–6, 227
poetry and literature of, 214–20, 221–2
Eileithyia, 38
Elea, 115
Electra (Euripides), 94
Elements (Euclid), 213
Eleusinion, 141
Eleusis, xx, 19, 129, 130, 132–3, 141
Eleutherae, 144
eleutheria (freedom), 7
embateria, 172
emotional honesty, 18–19, 90, 178
Empedocles of Akragas, 17, 114–15, 120
Encheiridion (Epictetus), 241–3
Enneads (Plotinus), 264–5
enoplia, 172
Epaphroditus, 247
Ephesus, 47, 96–7, 102, 109, 112, 164–5, 208, 213, 253, 267
cult of Artemis in, 257–9
Paul in, 257, 259
Ephialtes, xxvi, 137
ephors, 162, 164, 173–4, 177
Epic of Gilgamesh, xiv
Epictetus, xxviii, 231, 241–3, 247, 260
Epicureans, xxvii, 118, 156, 225, 243, 244, 245, 256, 262
Epicurus, xxvii, 225, 244
Epidaurus, 106
Epigrams (Callimachus), 215–16
Epinician Odes (Pindar), 83
Epirus, 197, 199, 241
Epistles (Saint Paul), 8
Eratosthenes, 222–3, 224
Eretria, 2–3, 45, 47, 117
Eris, 21
ethics, 195–6, 241
Ethiopian Story (Heliodorus of Emesa), 248–9
Etna, Mount, 114–15
Etruscans, iv, 13, 87, 93, 129
Euboea, xxv, 26, 45–7, 77, 79, 147, 196
Euclid, 213, 260
eudaimonia (happiness), 23, 196
Eudemian Ethics (Aristotle), 196
Eumenes I, King of Pergamum, 199
Eumenes II, King of Pergamum, 212
Eumenides (Aeschylus), 137, 144, 256
Euphemus, 83–4
Euphorion, 146
Euripides, xxvi, 38, 44, 92, 94, 109, 129, 146, 179, 193, 196, 209
Eurotas valley, 42, 166, 167, 169
Eurydice (Philip II’s concubine), 207
Eurydice (Philip II’s mother), 182, 191
Euryleon, tyrant of Selinus, 87
Eurylochus, 6
Euthydemus, Bactrian King, 200
Evans, Arthur, 33–4
excellence (arete), Greek pursuit of, 1, 21–2, 44, 45, 91, 196, 205, 227
Exekias, 93
festivals, 53, 58, 167
Athenian, 130, 139, 140–5
in Ptolemaic Egypt, 209–10
of Sparta, 168, 171, 177
Feuchtwanger, Lion, 248
freedom (eleutheria), 7–8
Epictetus’s concept of, 242–3
free speech (parrhesia), 18
Frege, Gottlob, 194
Frogs (Aristophanes), xxvi, 110–11, 154
Gaia, 141
Galen, 228, 233–6, 238, 260
scientific method applied by, 235–6, 260
Gaugamela, battle of (331 BC), xxvii, 187
Gautier de Châtillon, 248
Gaza, xxvii, 187, 268
Genesis, 260
geography, 103
Strabo and, 240–1
Geography (Strabo), 240–1
Gethosune, 24
Glaucus, 3, 48, 155
Glaukias, 257
Gnostics, 265
gods:
Greeks’ relationship with, 70–1
offerings to, 38
Xenophanes on, 113–14
see also Olympians; specific gods
Golden Ass, The (Apuleius), 249
Gorgias the Sophist, 23, 129, 156
Gospel of Saint John, 268
Gospel of Saint Mark, 259
Gournia, 34
grains, Greek cultivation of, 63–4
Granicus River, battle of (334 BC), 69, 185
grape vines, Greek cultivation of, 64, 65–6
Greece:
Hellenistic, see Hellenistic era
population growth in, 81
Roman conquest of, 229–30
Greek identity, 51–72
emergence of, 2
genealogy and, 52
in Hesiod’s view of history, 67
Iliad as charter myth of, 55
language and, 52
laws and customs (nomoi) and, 52
as mind-set, 233
self-sufficiency and, 51–2
wine and, 66, 98
Greek language, 32, 33–4
flexibility of, xvi–xvii, 16
koine (standardized), 232–3, 259
see also articulacy, Greek
Greeks:
in archaic era, 51–72
Asia Minor settlements of, see Ionia
in Bronze Age, see Mycenaeans
characteristics of, 253
Christianity and, see Christianity, Greek responses to
as conduit for achievements of others, xiv, xvi, 3
cultural elasticism of, xvi
“Dark Age” of, 45–9, 77, 84
exceptionalist view of, xiii, xvi
geopolitical knowledge of, 76–7
and invention of rational philosophy, xiv
modern relationship with, 29–30
Phoenician alphabet adopted by, 14, 25, 45, 53–4, 103
revisionist view of, xiv–xv
Greek War of Independence, xvi
Gregory of Nazianzus, Archbishop of Constantinople, 269–70
Gryllus (Plutarch), 246
Gyges, tyrant of Lydia, 86, 88, 112, 123
Gylippus, 18, 176
Gymnopaidiai, 168
Hades, 19, 69, 110–11, 190, 207
Hadrian, Emperor of Rome, xxviii, 239, 261
Halicarnassus, 19, 106, 122, 124, 185, 203
Hall, Edith H., 34
Hannibal, 201, 231
happiness (eudaimonia), 196, 242
Harmodius, 131
Hasmonean dynasty, 256
Hattians, xiii
Hawes, Harriet Boyd, 34
Hecale (Callimachus), 216
Hecataeus, of Miletus, 121, 122, 123
Hecatoncheires, 68
Hector, 36, 53, 54–5, 60
Hecuba, 179
Helen of Troy, 41, 42, 54, 88, 123, 168, 169–70, 179
Helicon, Mount, 8, 63, 216
Heliodorus of Emesa, 248–9
Helios, statue of, 198
Hellenes, Hellenic, 52, 55, 202, 222, 245, 255, 262, 274
meaning of term, 59, 206, 268
Hellenica (Xenophon), 155
Hellenion, 59
“Hellenistic,” meaning of term, 206
Hellenistic era, 2, 21, 23, 197, 205–27
Athens in, 225–7
children in, 219–20
coinage in, 211
core institutions of, 247
literature of, 213–23
politics of scale in, 210–11
science in, 223–5
seafaring in, 206, 210–11, 227
trade in, 210–11
women in, 219–20
helots, xxvi, 162, 163, 173–4, 177, 178
Hephaestion, 187, 193
Hera, 37, 69, 220
Heracles, 10, 11, 31, 69, 76, 78, 92, 141, 160, 163, 168, 177, 187, 189, 190, 202, 212, 230, 240
Heraclitus, 17, 102, 109–10, 112, 115, 155
Herculaneum, 243–4
Hermes, 22, 107, 151, 190, 257
Herodas, 216–17
Herodotus, 10, 48, 52, 66–7, 80, 81, 82, 84, 94, 103, 116–17, 120–4, 129, 130, 132, 149–50, 159, 160, 162, 163, 164, 169, 174, 221
Hesiod, xvii, 8, 21, 22, 25, 29, 47, 49, 52–4, 63–4, 72, 92, 105, 113, 116, 178, 185
creation story in, 67–71
human history as seen by, 66–7
self-portrait of, 63
Hestia, 69
Himera, 86, 88
Hindu Kush, 200
Hipparchus, tyrant of Athens, xxvi, 131
Hippias, tyrant of Athens, xxvi, 131, 134
Hippocrates, Hippocratics, 7–8, 103, 106, 107–8, 122, 195, 233
Hippodamus of Miletus, 198
Hippolytus, 268
Hipponax, 92
Hiram of Tyre, 11
Hissarlik, Turkey, 57
Histories (Herodotus), 116–17, 122, 123, 130
Histories (Polybius), 220
Histories (Timaeus of Sicily), 220
history, writing of, 1–2, 103, 105
Herodotus and, 120–4, 221
History of the Peloponnesian War (Thucydides), 149–50
Hittites, xiii, xiv, xv, 56, 57
Homer, xvii, 4, 9, 13, 19, 29, 31, 36, 41, 42, 47, 49, 52–4, 56, 57, 58, 82, 87, 113, 116, 123, 178, 196, 208, 213, 221, 222, 265–6
homoeroticism, 90–1, 92, 167
homosexuality, 171
hoplites, hoplite warfare, 83, 84, 147, 151, 159, 161, 169, 174–6
Horace, 223, 232
humor, Greek, 1, 25, 44, 273, 274
of Athenians, 127
joke collections in, 19
in myth, 20
in Ptolemaic Egypt, 216–17
ridicule and, 20
of Spartans, 19, 159–60, 161, 167–8, 176, 179
Hyacinthia, 168, 171
Hyacinthus, 168, 169, 171
Hydne, 4
hymns, xiii–xiv, 19, 21, 57, 88, 89–90, 94, 96
Hymns (Callimachus), 215, 222
Hymn to Dionysus, 93
Hymn to Hermes, 107–8
Hypanis River, 97
hypaspists, 192
Hypatia, 260
Hypsicles, 224
Ibn Rushd (Averroes), 194
Iconion, 267
Idylls (Theocrites), 218
Iklaina, 32
Iliad (Homer), 4, 5, 6, 25, 31, 32, 37, 42, 43, 46, 47, 48, 52–3, 54, 55, 56–7, 60–1, 62, 72, 76, 105, 107, 123, 160, 169
Illyria, 184
In Defense of the Temples (Libanius), 273
India, xxvii, 199, 200, 201
individualism, Greek, 1, 3, 7–9, 16, 75–99
Indus Valley, 197
infinity, concept of, 111
Ino, 95
inquisitiveness, Greek, 1, 9, 16, 101–24
analogy and, 16
of Athenians, 127
linguistic flexibility and, 16
Mycenaeans and, 44
Odysseus as exemplar of, 15–16
polarity and, 16–17
in Ptolemaic Egypt, 227
Spartans as lacking in, 178
unity of opposites and, 17
Interpretation of Dreams (Artemidorus), 257
Ion (Plato), 156
Ionia, Ionians, xvi, 2, 47–8, 56, 58, 67, 84, 95, 96, 120
Athenians as settlers of, 77
cult of Apollo Delphinios in, 105
cultural cross-fertilization in, 104, 105, 108, 116
in failed revolt against Persia, 117, 133
intellectual revolution in, 101–24
Ionian League (Panionic League), 47, 104, 106, 108, 112, 118
Iphigenia, 96, 267
Ipsus, battle of (301 BC), 198, 199
Isagoras, 131
Isis, 214, 219
Islam, 254, 264
Isocrates, 165, 233
Issus, battle of (333 BC), xxvii, 186
Isthmia, xxv, 46–7
Istria, 105
Italy, Greek colonies in, xxv, xxvi, 2, 4, 87, 88, 96, 102, 103, 151
as primarily Doric, 77, 78
Ithaca, 30, 35, 52, 55, 57, 62, 63, 266
Janus, 111
Jerusalem, xxvii, 10, 233, 248, 255, 256, 259
Jesus Christ, xxviii, 255, 256, 259, 262, 263
Jewish Antiquities (Josephus), 247
Jewish diaspora, 247–8
Jewish revolt, xxviii, 231, 247
Jewish War, The (Josephus), 247
Jews:
in Alexandria, 206, 247, 255, 256
in Jerusalem, 255–6
Jews of Rome, The (Feuchtwanger), 248
John Chrysostom, 271
John of Patmos, Saint, 253
John the Baptist, Saint, 260, 263
Josephus (Feuchtwanger), 248
Josephus, Titus Flavius, 233, 247–8
Journey Round the Earth (Hercataeus), 121
Judaea, 247
Julian, Emperor of Rome, xxviii, 254, 269–70, 272–3, 275
Justin, 189
Justinian, Emperor of Rome, 275
Kabul, 200
Kalanos, 261
Kallinikos, 259
Kashmir, 200
Kerameikos, 128, 148
Keramopoullos, Antonios, 43–4
Kerkyra, 7
Keteioi, 57
Knidos, 37, 106, 224
Knights (Aristophanes), 138
Knossos, 33–4, 37, 38, 40, 44, 45, 95, 96
Kober, Alice, 36
koine (standardized) Greek, 232–3, 259
Kolaios, 82–3
krupteia, 174
Laconia (Lacedaemon), 55, 154, 160, 164, 166, 168, 170, 173–4, 179
“laconic,” origin of word, 160
Laconic Sayings (Plutarch), 160
Lampito, 170
“Late Helladic” era, 32
League of Islanders, 208
Lefkadia, Macedonian tomb at, 190
Leonidas, King of Sparta (480 BC), 2, 159, 160–1, 167, 172, 175, 176, 177
Lesbos, 36, 89–90, 94, 194
Leto, 57, 58
Libanius, xxviii, 270–3
Libation-Bearers (Aeschylus), 144
Library of World History (Diodorus of Sicily), 229–30
Libya, xv, 77, 79, 80, 81, 83, 121, 207, 208, 213, 216
Life (Josephus), 247
Linear A, 33, 34
Linear B, xxv, 32, 34, 36–7, 39, 40, 43, 49, 64
Lion Gate, Mycenae, 43
Lithika (Poseidippos), 218
Lives (Plutarch), 161, 244–5
Locri Epizephyri, 219–20
locus amoenus, 22–3
logic, 194
Longinus, 259–60
Longus, 218
Lucian of Samosata, 233, 249–50
on Christians, 261–2
Lucullus, 201
Luwians, xiv, 48–9
Lyceum, xxvii, 194, 213, 225
Lycia, Lycians, 42, 48, 56, 86, 117
Lycurgus, 161, 163, 170, 171, 177
Lydia, Lydians, xiii, xxv, 16, 52, 56, 86, 89, 104, 110, 111, 112, 116, 117, 128, 165, 209, 239, 257
lyric poetry, 8, 87–8, 98
authorial individuality in, 88, 89
dolphins associated with, 93, 94
homoeroticism in, 90–1
pursuit of pleasure in, 88
symposia and, 90–2
Lysias, 129–30
Lysimachus, King of Thrace, 199
Lysippos, 193
Lysistrata (Aristophanes), 153, 170
Maccabees, 255–6
Maccabees, First Book of, 255–6
Macedonia, Macedonians, xvi, xxvii, 1, 2, 19, 20, 147, 162, 163, 181–203, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 211, 216, 244
army of, 192–3
as exemplars of competitiveness, 181–3, 196, 205
as Greeks, 184
navy of, 193
political factions in, 182, 188
polygamy practiced by, 182
religious beliefs of, 184, 189–90, 218
Roman conquest of, 229–30
Maeander estuary, 101, 102, 103, 105, 200
Magna Graecia, see Italy, Greek colonies in
Manetho, 214
Mantinea, battle of (418 BC), 151
Marathon, battle of (490 BC), xxvi, 117, 133, 135, 177
Marcellinus, Ammianus, 227
Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome, 8, 234, 236, 241, 261
Mardonius, 174
Marinatos, Spyridon, 34–5
Marx, Karl, 111
Masada, 231
Massalia, xxv, 74, 82, 83, 97
Matar, 48
Matham, Theodor, 180
mathematics, 103, 114, 116, 118, 213
Mathura, 200
Mauryan Empire, 200
Mausolus, Satrap of Caria, 185–6
Mecone, 70, 71
Medea, 17, 146
Medea (Euripides), xxvi, 145–6
medicine, Greek, 103, 116, 122, 233–8
Apollo as patron god of, 106
concept of likelihood in, 107–8
Egyptian influence on, 107
Galen and, 233–6, 238
rational basis of, 106–9, 235
religious approach to, 235–8
Meditations (Marcus Aurelius), 8, 241
Megara, 76, 86, 94
Melquart, 10, 11, 95, 189
Memphis, 207
Menaechmi (Plautus), 226
Menander (playwright), 226–7
Menander I, Bactrian King, 200–1
Menelaus, King of Sparta, 31, 41, 42, 160, 163, 168, 169, 179
Menippus, 249–50
Merneptah, King of Egypt, 3–4
Mesopotamia, xiii, xiv
Mesopotamians, 66
Messenia, Messenians, 164, 172, 173
Metaphysics (Aristotle), 156–7, 194
Metapontum, 78
Methone, siege of (354 BC), 183–4
Midas, King of Phrygia, 110–11
Miletus, Milesians, xxv, 14, 47, 48, 77, 101–2, 118, 138, 185
Black Sea colonies of, 97, 104–5
cult of Aphrodite at, 104–5
Persian destruction of, 117, 133
Milinda Pañha, 201
militias, tyrants and, 85–6
Mimiambs (Herodas), 216–17
Mimnermus of Colophon, 122–3
Minoans, xxv, 33–6
Misopogon (Julian), 272–3
Mithras, 202
Mithridates VI Eupator, King of Pontus, 201–3, 240
Mithridatic wars, xxvii, xxviii, 201, 202
Molpoi, 97
Momigliano, Arnaldo, 123
monotheism, 2, 269, 271
Monty Python, 261
mosaics, 270–1
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 201
Murena, 201
musical contests, 22, 59, 71, 83, 94, 142, 246–7
Mycale, 48
Mycenae, 32, 33, 43, 45, 55, 240
Mycenaeans, xxv, 2, 29–49
competitiveness of, 44
inquisitiveness of, 44
as joy-loving, 44
later Greeks relationship with, 29–30, 48–9, 55
Minoans and, 34
monarchical system of, 38–39
and pursuit of excellence, 44
religion of, 37–8
as seafarers, 34, 44
Myletidae, 86
Mysia, 56, 89
Myth of Er, 265
myths, Greek, Christian reinterpretations of, 267–9
Mytilene, 89–90
Napoleon I, Emperor of the French, 241
Naucratis, 59
Nausicaa, 62
navigation, 103–4
Naxos, 76, 135
Nearchos, 189, 192, 193
Near East, civilizations of, xiv, xv, 13, 52, 104, 117, 122, 268
Nemea, xxv, 59, 60
Neo-Assyrians, 117
Neoplatonists, 264–6, 269
Nero, 247
Nestor, King of Pylos, 5, 30–1, 32, 36, 37, 38, 41, 45, 46, 131
cup of, 25–6
as embodiment of historical memory, 31
New Testament, 257, 259, 266–7
Nicaea, Council of (325 AD), xxviii, 254
Nicomachean Ethics (Aristotle), xvi, 196
Nicopolis, 241
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 150
Nile River, xvi, 59, 69, 88, 122, 124, 223, 240, 254
nomoi (laws and customs), 52
Nonnus of Panopolis, 268–9
Nossis of Locri Epizephyri, 219–20
Nous (divine reason, mind), 118, 190
Plotinus’s concept of, 264–5
novels, Hellenistic, 248–9
Nubians, xiv, 233
odeon, 144
Odysseus, 5, 6, 14–15, 21, 30, 50, 246, 265–6, 270
as archetypal seafarer, 14, 61, 72
curiosity of, 15–16
as epitome of self-sufficiency, 61–3, 72
as exemplar of Greek articulacy, 22, 61
human failings of, 61
Odyssey (Homer), xv, 6, 14, 15, 16, 22, 30–2, 37, 41, 46, 47, 52–3, 61, 62, 72, 75, 78, 95, 107, 246, 265–6, 267
Oedipus, 17, 43, 44, 66
Oedipus the Tyrant (Sophocles), 146
Oeta, Mount, 160
Olbia, 97–8, 105
Old Oligarch, 128, 140
Old Testament, 255, 263, 268
olives, Greek cultivation of, 64, 65
Olympia, 51, 59, 170, 182, 197
statue of Zeus at, 239
Olympians, xvii, 69–70, 78, 105, 113, 116, 141, 211
Olympias, 182, 183, 188, 190–1, 197
Olympic Games, 20, 53, 59, 60, 83, 181, 261
On Behalf of the Dancers (Libanius), 271
On Containing Anger (Plutarch), 245–6
On Head Wounds, 108
On Nature (Epicurus), 244
On Pneumatics (Philo of Byzantium), 64
On Praising Oneself Inofensively (Plutarch), 246
On Talkativeness (Plutarch), 245
On the Cave of the Nymphs (Porphyry), 266
On the Diseases of Women, 106
On Therapeutic Method (Galen), 235
On the Sublime (Longinus, attributed), 260
openness to new ideas, Greek, 1, 17–18, 26, 127–57
of Athenians, 127–30, 137, 152, 153–4
and birth of natural science, 103
democracy and, 137–8, 152, 153–4
free speech and, 18–19
limits to, 129
about sex, 18, 25
Socrates and, 152–5
oratory, 22 see also articulacy, Greek
Oresteia (Aeschylus), 136–7, 143–4
Orestes, 36, 96, 136, 256, 267
Organon (Aristotle), 194
Origen, 262, 264, 275
Orontes River, xxvii, 77, 187, 270
Orphic mysteries, 190
Orthagoras, tyrant of Sicyon, 85
Ortygia, 86–7
Osiris, 214
Ouranos, 67–9
Ovid, 216, 223
Owen, Richard, 195
Oxyrhynchus, Egypt, 88, 225
Paestum (Posidonia), xxx, 4, 87, 90–1
paidonomos, 172
Painted Stoa, 225
Palestine 255, 261
Palladas, 274
Palmyra, xxviii, 259
Panathenaea, 91, 141–2, 143
Pandora, 66, 71
Panhellenic festivals, 141
Panhellenic games, xxv, 22, 46, 60
Panhellenic League, 198
Panhellenic shrines, 58–60
Panhellenion, 239
Panionion, 48
Panticapaion (Kerch), 105, 203
Paphos, 268
paradoxes, 115–16
Paris, 54
Parmenides, 115
Parmenion, 185, 186
Paros, 88
parrhesia (free speech), 18
Partheneia (Alcman), 167
Parthenon, 126, 143, 212
Pasargadae, xvi, 187, 189
Pasolini, Pier Paolo, 217
Patmos, 253, 257
Patna, 200
Patroclus, 54, 60
Paul, Saint, 252, 267
in Athens, 256–7, 261
in Ephesus, 257, 258, 259
letters of, xxviii, 8, 254–5, 259
Paullus, Aemilius, 229–30
Paul of Samosata, Bishop of Antioch, 259
Pausanias, xxviii, 42, 168–9, 238–40
Pausanias, King of Sparta, 179
Peisistratus, tyrant of Athens, xxv, xxvi, 130–1, 134
Peithagoras, tyrant of Selinus, 87
Pella, 184, 190, 191, 203, 211, 218, 219
Peloponnese, Peloponnesians, 30, 46, 47, 49, 55, 59, 77, 78, 85, 94, 96, 101, 105, 106, 160, 161, 163, 164, 166, 171, 181, 185, 188, 197
Roman conquest of, 230, 231
Peloponnesian League, 147
Peloponnesian War, xxvi, xxvii, 130, 140, 146, 147–52, 155, 162, 163, 165, 176
Penelope, 5, 21, 62–3, 266
pepaideumenoi (educated ones), 233, 244
Perdiccas, 185, 188, 197
Peregrinus Proteus, 261
Pergamum, xxvii, 199, 206, 212, 223, 233, 234, 246–7
Pericles, xxvi, 2, 120, 127–8, 129, 134, 137–8, 143, 150, 152, 244
building program of, 142–3, 144, 166
funeral oration of, xxvi, 147–8, 149
in Peloponnesian War, 147–8
Periegesis (Guide) (Pausanias), 239
Persephone, 19, 141, 219
Persepolis, xvi, 117, 187
Perseus, King of Macedonia, 199, 202, 229–30, 248
Persia, Persians, xiv, xvi, xxvi, 2, 4, 6, 7, 42, 48, 57, 102, 104, 105, 107, 109, 116, 118, 120, 121–2, 123, 124, 128, 164, 183, 185
army of, 158, 159, 160, 161, 163
Ionian revolt aided by, 133
Macedonian conquest of, xxvii, 185–7
rise of, 116–17
Persians (Aeschylus), xxvi, 130, 133–6, 142
Persian Wars, 5, 42, 117, 118, 120, 123, 130, 134, 135, 142–3, 164, 167, 189
Persepolis, xvi, 117, 187
Phaeacians, 14, 57, 62, 63
Phaedo (Plato), 76–7, 156
Phaedra, 268
Phaedrus (Plato), 106, 157
Phainomena (Aratus of Soloi), 224
Phaistos, 34
phalanxes, 164, 174, 175, 176
Phalaris, tyrant of Akragas, 86–7
Phanagoria, 105
Pharnabazus, 165
Pharos lighthouse, 204, 211
Phasis River, 69, 77
Pheidias, 129, 143, 238, 239
Philanthos, 93
Philetaerus, King of Pergamum, 199
Philetas of Cos, 207–8, 218, 219
Philip II, King of Macedonia, xxvii, 19, 181, 182–3, 207, 244
Aristotle and, 193–4
character of, 185
military genius of, 183, 192
murder of, xxvii, 185
Persia invaded by, 185, 188–9
wealth of, 191–2
Philippeion, 182
Philodemos of Gadara, 243
Philogelos, 19
Philo of Byzantium, 64, 223–4
Philopoemen, 230
philosophy, Greek, xiv, xvi, 2, 101, 103, 105, 109–10
abstract concepts introduced in, 111, 115, 116
Aristotle and, 193–6
Epictetus and, 241–3
Epicureanism, xxvii, 118, 156, 225, 243–6, 262
in Hellenistic era, 225, 227
ideal state debated in, 23
as inquiry into nature of existence, 109
Neoplatonists and, 264–6
Plato and, 155–7
polarity in, 16
self in, 8
Socrates and, 152–3, 155, 157
unity of opposites in, 16–17
Philoxenos, 197
Phocaea, 47, 83, 96, 97
Phocis, 47
Phoenicians, xiii, xv, xxv, 2, 13, 46, 66, 77, 83, 95, 104, 116, 117, 128, 135, 167, 187, 189, 225, 243, 265
alphabet of, xiii, xxv, 14, 24, 25, 45, 53, 54, 103
as seafarers, 10, 11–12, 14–15
Phrygians, 48, 56, 110, 165, 185, 186, 209, 241
phthonos, 19
phylai (clans), 132–3, 139
Pillars of Heracles, 11, 83, 157, 240
Pinakes (Callimachus), 214
Pindar, 21–2, 76, 83, 84, 94, 130, 274
Piraeus, 133, 134, 147, 226
Piso, L. Calpurnius, 243
Pithekoussai (Ischia), 25
Plataea, 147
Plataea, battle of (479 BC), xxvi, 117, 133, 134, 158, 164
Plato, 2–3, 8–9, 13, 18–19, 20, 21, 76–7, 93, 106, 119, 129, 130, 133, 146, 152, 153, 155–7, 162, 178, 194, 201, 245, 246, 255, 260, 264–6
Academy of, xxvi, 20, 153, 155, 194, 225
dialogues of, 155–7
Platonists (Neoplatonists), 264–6
Plautus, 13, 226
pleasure, Greek pursuit of, 1, 24, 25–6, 45, 88
Christian condemnation of, 253, 266, 270
Mycenaeans and, 44
Pleuron, 37
Pliny the Elder, 203
Plotinus, 264–6
Plutarch, 2, 160, 161, 164, 170, 171, 172, 174, 178, 189, 200, 226, 231, 244–6
poetry, Greek, 4, 23
Alexander as lover of, 196
in Hellenistic era, 214–23
lyric, see lyric poetry
oral tradition of, 53, 54
pastoral, 218
Spartan, 166, 172
polarity, in Greek thought, 16
Political Precepts (Plutarch), 200
political theory 103
of Aristotle, 196
colonization as impetus for development of, 120
Protagoras and, 116–20
of Socrates, 154
Xenophanes as founder of, 112
Politics (Aristotle), 162, 196
Polybius, 169, 220–1, 230–1, 232, 233, 244, 248
Polyeidus of Thessaly, 192
Polygnotus, 31
Polyperchon, 191
Polyphemus, 15, 50
Pompe, 144
Pompeii, 34, 197, 243
Pompey, 201, 203, 246
Pontus, xxvii, 201, 203
Porphyry, 264–5, 266
Poseidippos of Pella, 211, 217–18, 219
Poseidon, xxv, 5, 10, 13, 15, 30, 37, 46–8, 63, 69, 87, 93, 94, 95, 98, 133, 157, 211, 217
post-traumatic stress disorder, 175–6
Potidaea, 147, 148
Priam, 19, 54, 60, 185
Priene, 47, 48
Procopius of Gaza, 268
Proitos, 42–3
Prometheus, 70–1, 119–20
Prometheus Bound (Aeschylus), 119–20
Propertius, 216, 223
Protagoras, 7, 100, 129, 156, 157
political theory of, 117, 118–20
relativism of, 119
Protagoras (Plato), 119
Proteus (Aeschylus), 144
Ptolemaic dynasty, 22, 197, 205–6, 209, 246
deification of, 208
intellectual excellence prized by, 212–13
politics of scale employed by, 210–11
Ptolemeiaia, 208, 226
Ptolemy I Soter, King of Egypt, xxvii, 189, 197, 198, 205, 206–8, 210, 211, 226, 255
deification of, 207, 208
grand procession celebrating divinity of, 209–10
as public relations genius, 207
Ptolemy II, King of Egypt, xxvii, 207–8, 209, 213, 215, 218
Ptolemy III Euergetes, King of Egypt, 208, 219
Ptolemy IV, King of Egypt, 210
Ptolemy, Claudius (astronomer), 224–5
Ptolemy Caesar (Caesarion), 223
Punic Wars, 230
Punjab, India, 187, 200
Pydna, battle of (168 BC), xxvii, 229
Pylos, 30, 31–2, 36, 37–8, 39, 44, 45, 46, 55, 96, 131
palace of, 40–2
Pyrgi, 13
Pyrgoteles, 193
Pyrrha, 67
Pyrrhus of Epirus, 197
Pythagoras, Pythagoreans, xv, 5, 16, 103, 114–15, 178, 255, 265
Pythagorean theorem, 114–15
Pythian games, xv, 60, 78, 84
Pythian Odes (Pindar), 22
Pythioi, 177
Quintilian, 226
racism, xv
Rameses II, Pharaoh of Egypt, 211
Raphael, 252
Realpolitik, 150, 178
reincarnation, 114–15
Renaissance, xiii, xvi, 29, 161, 195, 217, 226, 232, 241, 244, 250, 264
rediscovery of classical Greece in, xiii, xvi
Report of the Voyage of Hanno, A, 13
Republic (Plato), 9, 18–19, 155, 156, 157, 260, 265
Republic (Zeno), 225
Revelations, Book of, 212, 253
Rhadamanthys, 190, 218
Rhea, 69, 141
Rhegium, 79
rhetoric, 22, 23, 195–6
Rhodes, xxvii, 55, 106, 198, 207, 213, 219
Rioni, 69, 77
Roman Empire, 2, 22, 193, 201
Christianity and, 254
comedy in, 226
fall of, 247
Greece conquered by, 229–30
Jewish diaspora in, 247–8
Jewish revolt against, 231, 247
Menander’s popularity in, 226–7
Roman Empire, Greek intellectuals in, 229–50
articulacy of, 232–3, 236–7, 244, 247–8, 250
common language (koine) of, 232–3
distinguishing mind-set of, 233
geography and, 240–1
medicine and, 233–8
novels by, 248–9
as well-traveled, 233, 236, 239–40
see also Christians, Christianity, Greek responses to
Romans, xiii, xvi, xvii, xxvii, 183, 199, 201
Roxana, 188, 197
rule of law:
in Athens, 136, 137, 139
in Sparta, 171, 173
Russell, Bertrand, 194
Sabazios, 186
Sacred Tales (Aristides), 236–8
sacrifice, 70, 144
Salamis, battle of (480 BC), xxvi, 117, 133, 134, 135
Samaria, 187
Samos, 47, 48, 82, 91, 114, 143, 224
Samosata, 249, 259
sanctuaries, 58–9, 166–8, 171 see also Panhellenic shrines
Santorini, see Thera
Sappho, 8, 89–90, 220
Sarapis, 207, 214
Sardinia, 10, 87
Sardis, 185, 248
Sarpedon, 48
satyr dramas, 143–4
Sayings of Laconian Women (Plutarch), 160, 170
Scarlatti, Alessandro, 201
Schliemann, Heinrich, 43, 240
science, Greek, 2, 102, 104, 105
Aristotle and, 194–5
geography and, 240–1
in Hellenistic era, 223–5
maritime imagery in, 103, 104
openness to new ideas in, 103
seafaring and, 103–4
see also medicine, Greek
scientific method, Galen’s insistence on, 235–6, 260
Scipio Aemilianus, 230–1
Scylla, 62, 95
Scythia, Scythians, 77, 98, 104, 121, 123, 138, 202
seafarers, Greeks as, 1, 2–3, 29–49, 61, 253
Athenians as, 127–9, 134–5
and birth of natural science, 103–4
dolphins and, see dolphins
in Hellenistic era, 206, 210–11, 227
metaphors connected to, 5–6, 9
Odysseus as archetype of, 14, 62, 71
Phoenicians and, 11–12
proper names related to, 37
swimming and diving skills of, 4–5
trade by, 75, 77
see also Mycenaeans
seafarers, Phoenicans as, 10, 11–12, 14
Second Sophists, 233, 249
Seleucia Pieria, 197–8
Seleucid dynasty, xxvii, 197–8, 200, 206, 246, 255, 256
Seleucus I Nicator, xxvii, 197, 199, 205, 270
self, sense of, 4
self-sufficiency, 51–2
Odysseus as epitome of, 61–3
Selinus, Sicily, 87
Semonides, 92
Seneca, 103
Septimius Severus, Emperor of Rome, 234
Septuagint (Old Testament), 255
Serbia, 185
Seven Wonders of the World, 186, 198, 211, 214, 239
sex, Greek openness about, 18, 24, 25, 89–90
Shakespeare, William, 226
ships, 12–13
catalogue of, 4
as metaphors, 9–10
Sicily, Greek colonies in:
Athenian invasion of, 151
as primarily Doric, 77–8
tyrants as rulers of, 86–7
Siculus, Diodorus, 189
Sicyon, 85, 131, 191
Sidon, 10, 12
silver, 145
Simonides of Ceos, 222
Sinope, 97, 203
Sirens, 15, 62
skepticism, 225
Skyllias, 4
slaves, slavery, 7–8, 39
Athenian citizenship given to, 152, 154
in Athens, 129
helots, 162, 173–4, 177, 178
Mycenaean, 37, 44
women as, 37, 44, 64
Smyrna, 21, 236, 237, 238, 239
Socrates, xxvi, 8–9, 11, 18–19, 20, 21, 76–7, 109, 115, 119, 129, 130, 147, 151, 152–7, 161, 179, 201, 261
execution of, 129, 151, 154–5
Sogdiana, 187
Solomon, 10
Solon, xxv, 23, 127
Sophists, 233, 236, 249, 262, 271–2, 273
Sophocles, 129, 146
Soul, Plotinus’s concept of, 265
Sparta, Spartans, xxvi, 2, 6, 19, 21, 31, 32, 41–2, 64, 78, 79, 87, 90, 95, 105, 124, 131–2, 134, 143, 147, 150, 155, 158, 159–79, 184, 193, 197
army of, 173, 174
articulacy of, 178
Assembly of, 173, 177
competitiveness of, 178
dearth of firsthand accounts of, 161
as decendants of Heracles, 160–1
as dyarchy, 163
educational system (agoge) of, 172
egalitarianism of, 161, 176
festivals of, 168, 171, 177
as gerontocracy, 164
helots (slaves) of, xxvi, 162, 165, 173–4, 177, 178
homosexuality in, 171
humor of, 19, 159–60, 167–8, 176, 179
as lacking inquisitiveness, 178
laws of, 171, 173
marriage in, 170–1
militarism of, 159–60, 164, 165, 171, 172, 176–7, 179
other Greeks’ image of, 161–2
in Peloponnesian War, 130, 147–52, 163
in Persian Wars, 164, 165
poetry of, 166, 167, 168, 172
religiousness of, 176–7
rise of, 163
secret service (krupteia) of, 174
social and political organization of, 172–3
topographical isolation of, 166
women in, 167–71, 178
Spartiates, 163, 168, 170–1, 172–4, 178
Sperthias, 6
Sphacteria, battle of (425 BC), xxvi,
Staira, 193–4
Stesichorus, 88
Stoics, Stoicism, 8, 162, 223, 225, 231, 241–3, 247, 256, 260, 265
Strabo, 14, 240–1
Strato I Soter, Bactrian King, 201