I would like to acknowledge all the valuable time, comments and feedback I have received, during the preparation and writing of this book from individuals, firms and organisations. They have worked closely with me, helping me to capture the essence of projects, design methods and approaches featured here in the case studies, projects, building systems and installations. I thank them all for their involvement, support and advice.

I would like to extend my gratitude to Phil Harrison for providing his perspective and for writing the foreword.

My research assistants, Yi Wang, Christopher Mansfield and Tom Forker deserve special recognition for their help.

I would also like to thank the Wiley editorial and production team, particularly Helen Castle, Calver Lezama and Miriam Murphy.

Lastly, I would like to acknowledge Zlatan, Nur and Iona Aksamija for their undivided love and support.

Design professionals are currently faced with many challenges – rapid technological changes, the necessity to innovate and raise the bar in building performance, and a paradigm shift in architecture with the wider adoption of BIM-based design. There are a number of reasons why progressive practices must continuously invest in research and the implementation of advanced technologies, but the need to improve design processes and services is typically the overarching drive.

This book focuses on innovations in architecture, new materials and design methods, advances in computational design, innovations in building technologies and the integration of research with design. It also illustrates with case studies how these approaches have been implemented on actual architectural projects, and how design and technical innovations are used to improve building performance, as well as design practices in cutting-edge architectural and design firms. But first it is essential to discuss what innovation is, why it is necessary to innovate in architecture and how it relates to architectural design and practice.

WHAT IS INNOVATION?

The general definition of innovation is that it is the process of introducing changes to methods, services or products. These changes must be useful and meaningful, adding value to the established norms and contributing to our knowledge. Innovation and technological changes are complementary in nature, since innovation relies heavily on technological and scientific developments. For example, the diagram overleaf shows the use of the term ‘innovation’ in English language publications from the 1700s to today – it is evident that it coincides with major eras of technological developments, such as the Industrial Revolution and the Information Revolution. The last few decades have seen unprecedented social, technological and economic changes, and innovation is becoming critical to many fields including among others medicine, information technology, transport, engineering and design.

However, the concept of innovation in architectural design is not new – there are numerous examples throughout history where new ideas, design methods, materials and construction processes were introduced, resulting in new building typologies, design and construction methods. For example, the Romans introduced concrete and mastered the structural use of arches, resulting in monumental buildings and a style that significantly influenced future architectural styles and form. The Gothic architectural style was developed as a direct result of innovations in structural form – pointed arches, ribbed vaulting and flying buttresses provided new methods for spanning large areas in stone and for building taller. The introduction of reinforced concrete in the late 19th century revolutionised architectural design and engineering. Steel skeleton frames and advances in vertical transportation through the invention of elevators initiated the development of tall buildings, which was also influenced by particular economic conditions. High density and rising costs of urban land in major cities led to the development of tall buildings as a building type, where the building footprint and site were minimised, and the capabilities of steel structural systems were exploited to provide a design solution for maximising the building area and return on investment. Moreover, the second half of the 20th century provided unprecedented developments in materials, building technologies and systems, computational methods for design, fabrication methods and mass production, and construction processes. For example, advances in facade systems and glass, as well as developments in mechanical systems, introduced a new typology of commercial office buildings in the 1950s and 1960s, which became symbols of the International Style across the globe.

Although the concept of innovation within the context of architectural design is not new, the deliberate use of the word ‘innovation’ in architecture has become widely popular over the last 15 years. It is difficult to determine the specific cause – such as the development of a certain technology – that influenced the adoption of this term to describe contemporary design and practice. The key underlining standpoint of this book is that multiple reasons and causes, including new building technologies and materials, advancements in building systems, the wider adoption of computational design techniques, the adoption of BIM as a paradigm shift in design, collaboration and construction, new design practices (including research and development) and economic impacts have all contributed to embracing innovation as a key component in contemporary design.

Architectural design, in the context of contemporary innovation, relies on the decision-making process, where an idea is transformed into an outcome: either a tangible product (ie, building) or intangible service (ie, design process). Regardless of the type, innovation must be useful and meaningful, and must create added value by applying new ideas. The diagram, which shows the relationships between aspects that can be changed (product, service and process) and the level of innovation (incremental, radical and transformational), indicates different types and levels of innovation. Within architectural design, the product is the building, physical space, material or object; service is the way that we interact with clients, constituents and building occupants; and process is the design process that is applied to create a building, space or a system. Therefore, all of these three categories can be changed and improved, and the level of innovation can vary from incremental to transformational. Incremental innovation is a small change that affects certain projects, such as the application of a novel material. Radical innovation has an impact on larger contexts, such as new computer software, or the improvement of a design process for a certain building type. Transformational innovation creates a paradigm shift in architectural design and the profession.

There are three stages that constitute the innovation process: research and development, commercialisation or implementation, and dissemination. During each stage, there are activities that require the input of knowledge, and the investment of time and resources. For example, research and development stages require basic research, applied research and development and testing. The outcomes include discoveries, new ideas, the development of new knowledge and the development of prototypes, testing and experimental work. The next stage constitutes implementation, and the last stage is dissemination and wider adoption. It is important to note that innovation is rarely a linear progression through the indicated stages, but rather specific outputs influence the activities of consequent stages.

WHY INNOVATE IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN?

An important question arises – why innovate in architectural design? What are the drivers for innovation in architectural design, and what is its value? Innovation helps organisations to progress and advance; it also affects efficiency, quality of work and improves design processes.

Innovation in architectural design requires the application of new design strategies and new project delivery methods. New design tools, materials, building technologies and construction techniques contribute to making buildings more responsive to the environment and their occupants. Innovative methods for collaboration, such as BIM, provide new ways for integrating design and construction. Project delivery innovations blur the traditional roles in design and construction and have an impact on business performance. Seeking innovation in architectural design encourages creative thinking, which helps architectural firms to adapt to changing market conditions and inner dynamics, ultimately affecting productivity and business performance. Changing markets and economics dictate development and opportunities in the architectural and construction industries, and entrepreneurial firms are able to respond to these changes and adapt their practices.

Beyond the economic and competitive advantages, innovation in architectural design also influences the outcomes of the design process and the built environment, so instituting social impacts and human well-being. Energy-efficient, responsive buildings that adapt to environmental changes and occupants are an emerging category of buildings that have the potential to change our future. Therefore, the value lies not only in organisational improvements, economic benefits and enhancements for individual firms, but in the broader benefits for society.

HOW TO INNOVATE IN ARCHITECTURE?

Organisations typically classify their activities under two broad categories – operation and innovation. Operations include all activities that provide an existing service to clients, while innovation consists of all activities that change operations and are focused on the future needs of the organisation, market and clients, as well as technological developments. In some cases, tension between the operating activities and innovation may exist, since established operations will be affected. Innovative organisations embrace this challenge and maintain a balance, allowing the results of innovation to have an impact on operation. The diagram below shows how architectural firms and organisations that embrace innovation should function. Operation and innovation should be linked, allowing the results of innovation to influence changes in operation.

The size of a firm dictates its operation, mainly in terms of the selection of clients, specialisation in specific building typologies and markets, types of design projects, as well as activities and roles in the design process. Small firms tend to focus on specific building types, such as residential, hospitality or commercial buildings, where the employees tend to be involved in all stages of the project and different roles are blurred between design, project management and technical delivery. Large firms typically serve several market sectors and multiple building types, including healthcare, educational, academic, institutional, commercial and other building typologies. The roles of different employees are typically differentiated by the project stages, where design, project management and technical roles are distinguished and teams are organised by the market sector. However, innovative practices can be applied to any building type, and the firm’s size is irrelevant in implementing innovative design approaches. New ideas, new market demands and innovative processes are applicable in all market sectors and drive innovation in all building types. The differences between small, medium and large firms in accepting and implementing innovation are mostly evident in the firms’ operations. For example, larger firms may have more resources for research and development, where internal research teams are integrated with the design teams. Smaller firms may use different models for research, such as funding specific studies led by academic institutions or collaborating with research centres. Nevertheless, the size of the firm does not affect innovation, but rather its vision, motives and goals.

But, how to innovate in architecture? One of the most important aspects is that innovation requires integrated approaches, where design methods, technology and firm culture must coalesce to address issues and problems, and provide solutions that create value for the firm, client and society. Therefore, advanced materials and building technologies, design computation, innovative project delivery, BIM and construction techniques all play a role, as well as motives, the firm’s organisation, research and development, and investments. An integrated model for innovation in architecture is shown in the following diagram overleaf, which demonstrates how these different factors influence innovation. The rest of this book discusses all of these factors in detail and provides guidelines for integrating innovation in architecture. Chapter 1 focuses on advances in materials: composite materials, responsive and smart materials, as well as energy-generating materials. Chapter 2 discusses innovations in computational design: tools and methods for successfully integrating computation with design and digital fabrication, the use of BIM for all stages of a building’s life cycle, the use of simulations and performance-based analysis methods for environmental and structural investigations and processes for translating design to digital fabrication. Chapter 3 focuses on technological innovations: mainly innovative building technologies (facades, HVAC and lighting systems, and building automation); innovations in construction techniques (modular and prefabricated construction, automation of construction processes and robotics), as well as smart and responsive buildings. Chapter 4 presents guidelines for stimulating innovation in design practice: the integration of research and design, economic impacts and financial factors, innovations in project delivery and risk management in innovative design practices. Chapter 5 discusses specific case studies that illustrate methods for building-integrated innovations, including innovative materials and building technologies, responsive design, computational approaches, BIM and construction techniques. The concluding section of the book discusses future outlooks, and provides recommendations and steps that firms can take to integrate innovation into their operation and everyday activities.

We cannot exactly predict how cities will function in the future, how transport modes will work, or what types of new technologies will be discovered and developed. We cannot precisely predict how economic and societal changes will affect the human population in a long-term context, or how will our health be improved by new scientific discoveries and medical advances. But, we know that changes are imminent, and that architecture and the built environment will be affected. Contemporary practices that embrace technological, societal and economic changes, and establish innovation as a core value and design philosophy, are better equipped to face what the future will bring.

IMAGES

1. Opening image © James Steinkamp Photography; figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 © Ajla Aksamija

Innovations in materials are influencing contemporary architectural practice. Today, the focus is primarily on new materials that exhibit enhanced properties. Therefore, advanced and composite materials, smart and responsive materials, and biologically inspired materials are gaining popularity in architectural design. Advanced materials are those that have enhanced properties (such as thermal performance, structural properties, durability and so on), and exhibit sensitivity to the environment in terms of production and use. Smart and responsive materials are those that exhibit properties that can be changed or altered, so that they act as sensors or actuators, responding to changes in the environment. These new emerging materials offer radical changes to the built environment in terms of energy usage, thermal behaviour, structural performance and aesthetics. This chapter provides an overview of emerging materials and discusses their use, performance, benefits and drawbacks.

Advances in physical sciences have led to a new understanding of changeable materials, particularly those compromising the acoustic, luminous and thermal environments of buildings. A smart structure can be defined as a non-biological physical structure that has a definite purpose, means and imperative to achieve that purpose, and a biological pattern of functioning. Smart materials are considered to be a subset, or components of smart structures, and act in such a way as to mimic the functioning of a biological or living organism and adapt to changing conditions in the environment. Smart materials can be classified into two general categories – materials that can sense and inherently respond to the changes in the environment, and materials that need control in a systematic manner in order to actuate based on a certain change. Different types of smart materials include piezoelectric, electrochromic, electrostrictive, magnetostrictive, electrorheological, shape-memory alloys and fibre-optic sensors. Piezoelectric materials exhibit significant material deformation in response to an applied electric field and produce dielectric polarisation in response to mechanical strains. Electrostrictive materials exhibit mechanical deformation when an electric field is applied. Magnetostrictive materials generate strains in response to an applied magnetic field. Electrorheological materials exhibit the ‘ER response’ or ‘Winslow effect’, which refers to a significant and reversible change in the rheological behaviour of fluids subjected to an external applied electric field – low viscosity fluid converts into a solid substance. Shape-memory alloys are metal compounds that can sustain and recover large strains without undergoing plastic deformation under externally applied stress or thermal changes.

ADVANCES IN CONCRETE

Transforming the design and construction industries are new advances in concrete- and cement-based products. Among many new materials being used are superplasticising admixtures, high-strength mortars, self-compacting concrete and high-volume fly ash and slag concretes. A number of advances in new concrete technologies have been made in the past decade, including materials, recycling, mixture proportioning, durability and environmental quality. There are also diverse new methods and techniques in today’s construction world, such as high-performance concrete (HPC) and fibre-reinforced concrete (FRC). Advanced composite materials have become popular in the construction industry for innovative building design solutions, including the strengthening and retrofitting of existing structures. The interface between different materials is a key issue of such design solutions, as the structural integrity relies on the bond between different materials. Knowledge about the durability of concrete/epoxy interfaces is becoming essential, as the use of these systems in applications such as fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) strengthening and retrofitting of concrete structures is becoming increasingly popular.

Recycled materials are usually added to HPC, thereby reducing the need to dispose of them.¹ Some of the materials include fly ash (waste by-product from coal burning), ground-granulated blast-furnace slag and silica fume. But perhaps the biggest benefit of some of these other materials is the reduction in the need to use cement, also commonly referred to as Portland cement. The reduction in the production and use of cement has many beneficial aspects, including a decrease in the creation of carbon-dioxide emissions and energy consumption. In addition, fly ash and furnace slag have properties that improve the quality of the final concrete and the use of them is usually more cost-effective than cement.

Today’s concrete technologies have produced new types of concrete that have lifespans measured in the hundreds of years rather than decades. When compared with standard concrete, new concretes have better corrosion resistance, equal or higher compressive and tensile strengths, higher fire resistance, and rapid curing and strength gain. In addition, the production and life cycle of these new concretes will reduce greenhouse gas emissions by as much as 90%.

Glass-fibre reinforced concrete (GFRC) is a new type of concrete with a much higher tensile and flexural (bending) strength than standard concrete.² This glass-fibre reinforced concrete is combined with pre-mixed dry components. It has higher density than standard concrete, and structural systems and building components need less material than conventional concrete for structural stability. This high density gives GFRC concrete other properties, such as extremely high resistance to corrosion from chemicals. The higher strength also eliminates the need for steel rebars in structural designs. GFRC, or a variation with metallic fibres and/or superplasticisers, can be used to build extremely thin structural elements. Overall, structures built with GFRC will have much greater lifespans and require less maintenance. Special surface effects can be created with aggregates and a variety of finishing techniques. New York City’s Beach Restoration Modules, designed by Garrison Architects, incorporate GFRC panels. These factory-assembled modules were designed following the devastating Hurricane Sandy that destroyed the coastline of New York City. The modules are mounted on concrete legs, raising the modules above the 500 year flood level, as shown in the sections and elevations. The modules, designed to withstand the next major ocean storm, rely on photovoltaics and a solar water-heating system.

Other advances include translucent concrete, which is created by adding optical fibres to the concrete admixtures. This is changing the perception of concrete as a primarily opaque mass. Applications to date have been mainly for interior and decorative use, partitions, and so on. Self-consolidating concrete is a special concrete mix that eliminates the need for mechanical consolidation and yields a smooth surface finish.³ Insulated concrete form (ICF) walls are gaining popularity in the residential building sector. They consist of rigid thermal insulation that acts as a formwork and stays in place as a permanent substrate after concrete is poured. Since these systems are modular the benefits include rapid construction, improved thermal performance and energy savings.