| Fig. 210.—Origin of forms | 270 |
| 211.—Origin of forms | 270 |
| 212.—Origin of forms | 270 |
| 213.—Origin of forms | 270 |
| 214.—Origin of forms | 270 |
| 215.—Origin of handles | 271 |
| 216.—Origin of handles | 271 |
| 217.—Beginning of the coil | 274 |
| 218.—Section of coil-made vessel | 274 |
| 219.—Ordinary superposition of coils | 277 |
| 220.—Coiled and plain surface | 278 |
| 221.—Rib-like coil | 279 |
| 222.—Rib-like coil | 279 |
| 223.—Indented pattern | 280 |
| 224.—Thumb-nail indentation | 280 |
| 225.—Wave-like indentation | 281 |
| 226.—Wave-like indentation | 281 |
| 227.—Impressions of finger tips | 281 |
| 228.—Implement indentations | 281 |
| 229.—Nail markings | 282 |
| 230.—Incised lines | 282 |
| 231.—Incised pattern | 282 |
| 232.—Applied fillet | 283 |
| 233.—Examples of relief ornaments | 283 |
| 234.—Examples of relief ornaments | 283 |
| 235.—Examples of relief ornaments | 283 |
| 236.—Examples of relief ornaments | 283 |
| 237.—Examples of relief ornaments | 283 |
| 238.—Examples of relief ornaments | 283 |
| 239.—Vase from a cliff house, Mancos Cañon | 285 |
| 240.—Vase from Epsom Creek | 287 |
| 241.—Vase from tumulus at Saint George | 288 |
| 242.—Vase from tumulus at Saint George | 289 |
| 243.—Vase from tumulus at Saint George | 290 |
| 244.—Bowl from tumulus at Saint George | 291 |
| 245.—Vase from Parowan, Utah | 291 |
| 246.—Cup from central Utah | 292 |
| 247.—Vase from Zuñi | 293 |
| 248.—Vase from Zuñi | 294 |
| 249.—Mug from Tusayan | 294 |
| 250.—Vase from Tusayan | 295 |
| 251.—Vase from Tusayan | 296 |
| 252.—Vessel from Tusayan | 296 |
| 253.—Vase from Tusayan | 297 |
| 254.—Bowl from Cibola | 297 |
| 255.—Bottle from tumulus at Saint George | 300 |
| 256.—Vase from tumulus at Saint George | 301 |
| 257.—Vase from tumulus at Saint George | 301 |
| 258.—Bowl from tumulus at Saint George | 308 |
| 259.—Bowl from tumulus at Saint George | 309 |
| 260.—Bowl from tumulus at Saint George | 309 |
| 261.—Painted design | 310 |
| 262.—Bowl from Kanab, Utah | 310 |
| 263.—Painted design | 311 |
| 264.—Bowl from Kanab, Utah | 311 |
| 265.—Painted design | 311 |
| 266.—Bowl from tumulus at Saint George | 312 |
| 267.—Painted design | 312 |
| 268.—Bowl from Tusayan | 312 |
| 269.—Bowl from tumulus at Saint George | 313 |
| 270.—Bowl from tumulus at Saint George | 313 |
| 271.—Pitcher from tumulus at Saint George | 314 |
| 272.—Bowl from Montezuma Cañon | 316 |
| 273.—Bowl from San Juan Valley | 316 |
| 274.—Bowl from San Juan Valley | 317 |
| 275.—Bowl from San Juan Valley | 317 |
| 276.—Painted design | 318 |
| 277.—Handled cup from Montezuma Cañon | 318 |
| 278.—Handled cup from Montezuma Cañon | 318 |
| 279.—Vase from San Juan Valley | 318 |
| 280.—Vase from San Juan Valley | 319 |
| 281.—Vase lid from San Juan Valley | 319 |
| 282.—Vase lid from San Juan Valley | 319 |
| 283.—Handled bottle from San Juan Valley | 319 |
| 284.—Handled bottle from San Juan Valley | 320 |
| 285.—Handled mug from San Juan Valley | 320 |
| 286.—Handled mug from San Juan Valley | 320 |
| 287.—Handled mug from San Juan Valley | 320 |
| 288.—Handled mug from southern Utah | 320 |
| 289.—Bowl from Tusayan | 322 |
| 290.—Bowl from Tusayan | 323 |
| 291.—Painted design | 323 |
| 292.—Bowl from Tusayan | 324 |
| 293.—Painted design | 325 |
| 294.—Handled bowl from Tusayan | 325 |
| 295.—Painted design | 326 |
| 296.—Original form of painted design | 326 |
| 297.—Handled cup from Tusayan | 327 |
| 298.—Handled cup from Tusayan | 327 |
| 299.—Dipper from Tusayan | 327 |
| 300.—Dipper from Tusayan | 328 |
| 301.—Figure of bird | 328 |
| 302.—Dipper from Tusayan | 328 |
| 303.—Painted design | 329 |
| 304.—Painted design | 329 |
| 305.—Unit of the design | 329 |
| 306.—Bowl from Tusayan | 330 |
| 307.—Bowl from Tusayan | 331 |
| 308.—Bowl from Tusayan | 331 |
| 309.—Bowl from Tusayan | 332 |
| 310.—Bowl from Tusayan | 332 |
| 311.—Painted design | 333 |
| 312.—Bowl from Tusayan | 333 |
| 313.—Bowl from Tusayan | 334 |
| 314.—Vase from Tusayan | 334 |
| 315.—Vase from Tusayan | 335 |
| 316.—Vase from Tusayan | 335 |
| 317.—Vase from Tusayan | 336 |
| 318.—Vase from Tusayan | 336 |
| 319.—Painted design | 337 |
| 320.—Vase from Tusayan | 337 |
| 321.—Vase from Tusayan | 338 |
| 322.—Painted design | 338 |
| 323.—Unit of the design | 339 |
| 324.—Vase from Tusayan | 339 |
| 325.—Painted design | 340 |
| 326.—Unit of the design | 340 |
| 327.—Vase from Tusayan | 341 |
| 328.—Painted design | 342 |
| 329.—Unit of the design | 342 |
| 330.—Vase from Tusayan | 343 |
| 331.—Vase from Cibola | 343 |
| 332.—Vase from Cibola | 344 |
| 333.—Painted design | 345 |
| 334.—Painted design | 345 |
| 335.—Vase from Tusayan | 346 |
| 336.—Handled vase from Tusayan | 346 |
| 337.—Painted design | 347 |
| 338.—Handled mug from Tusayan | 347 |
| 339.—Painted design | 348 |
| 340.—Vase from Tusayan | 348 |
| 341.—Painted design | 348 |
| 342.—Handled cup from Cibola | 349 |
| 343.—Painted ornament | 349 |
| 344.—Painted ornament | 349 |
| 345.—Painted ornament | 350 |
| 346.—Painted ornament | 350 |
| 347.—Vase from Tusayan | 350 |
| 348.—Vase from Tusayan | 351 |
| 349.—Bottle from Tusayan | 351 |
| 350.—Bottle from Tusayan | 352 |
| 351.—Bottle from Tusayan | 352 |
| 352.—Vase from eastern Arizona | 353 |
| 353.—Vase from eastern Arizona | 354 |
| 354.—Vase from Tusayan | 354 |
| 355.—Vase from Tusayan | 355 |
| 356.—Vase from Tusayan | 355 |
| 357.—Vase from Tusayan | 356 |
| 358.—Vase from Cibola | 357 |
| 359.—Vase from Arizona | 358 |
| 360.—Bird-shaped cup from Tusayan | 358 |
By William H. Holmes.
A study of the pottery of the ancient Pueblo peoples is here commenced in accordance with plans formed years ago by the Director of the Bureau of Ethnology. His aim was to present to the world a monographic work upon the splendid material obtained by the Bureau, including with it the important collections made previously by himself. The preparation of this work has been postponed from time to time with the view of completing the collections, which were being enriched by annual visits to the Pueblo country. Meantime I began the study of the collection for the purpose of securing at the start a satisfactory classification of the material on hand.
The present paper is the first result of that study. I have, however, taken up only the more ancient groups of ware, leaving the rest for subsequent papers. A comparative study is not attempted, for the reason that a detailed examination of all the groups to be considered is absolutely essential to satisfactory results. Conclusions drawn from partial observations lead generally to error.
There were great difficulties in the way of treating satisfactorily the modern varieties of ware, as no one had sufficient familiarity with the language of the Pueblo tribes to discuss the ideographic phases of the ornamentation. Mr. F. H. Cushing's studies bid fair to supply this want, and his recent return from Zuñi has led to the preparation of the valuable paper presented in this volume.
Mr. James Stevenson, who has procured a large portion of the collection of modern pottery, has published catalogues with copious illustrations. Most of the cuts have been prepared under my supervision, and have been selected with the view of securing engravings of a full series of typical examples for a final work.
Distribution.—The ancient Pueblo peoples dwelt in a land of cañons and high plateaus. They had their greatest development in the valley of the Rio Colorado, where they delighted to haunt the shadows of the deepest gorges and build their dwellings along the loftiest cliffs. The limits of their territory are still in a measure undefined. We discover remnants of their arts in the neighboring valleys of Great Salt Lake, the Arkansas, and the Rio Grande, and southward we can trace them beyond the Rio Gila into the table-lands of Chihuahua and Sonora.
Thus outlined, we have an area of more than one hundred thousand square miles, which has at times more or less remote been occupied by tribes of town-building and pottery-making Indians.
Character.—High and desert-like as this land is, it has borne a noble part in fostering and maturing a culture of its own—a culture born of unusual needs, shaped by exceptional environment, and limited by the capacities of a peculiar people. Cliff houses and cavate dwellings are not new to architecture, and pottery resembling the Pueblo ware in many respects may be found wherever man has developed a corresponding degree of technical skill; yet there is an individuality in these Pueblo remains that separates them distinctly from all others and lends a keen pleasure to their investigation.
Treatment.—The study of prehistoric art leads inevitably to inquiries into the origin of races. Solutions of these questions have generally been sought through migrations, and these have been traced in a great measure by analogies in archæologic remains; but in such investigation one important factor has been overlooked, namely, the laws that govern migrations of races do not regulate the distribution of arts. The pathways do not correspond, but very often conflict. The arts migrate in ways of their own. They pass from place to place and from people to people by a process of acculturation, so that peoples of unlike origin practice like arts, while those of like origin are found practicing unlike arts. The threads of the story are thus so entangled that we find it impossible to trace them backward to their beginnings.
For the present, therefore, I do not propose to study the arts of this province with the expectation that they will furnish a key to the origin of the peoples, or to the birthplace of their arts, but I shall treat them with reference rather to their bearing upon the processes by which culture has been achieved and the stages through which it has passed, keeping always in mind that a first requisite in this work is a systematic and detailed study of the material to be employed.
Age.—The ceramic art of the ancient Pueblos is practically a unit. We find in its remains few indications of distinct periods. There is nothing to carry us back to a remote past. The oldest specimens known are nearly as high in the scale as the latest. In the deposits of caves and burial-grounds we find, so far, nothing more archaic than in the ruins of once populous villages and beneath the fallen walls of hewnstone cliff houses. In methods of manufacture and in styles of ornamentation there is no specific distinction.
Once introduced, there is much in the character of the country to develop this art. The people were sedentary, and thus able to practice the art continuously for a long period; and in a country so arid there was often great need of vessels suitable for the transportation and storage of water.
Material.—Nature was lavish in her supply of the material needed. Suitable clay could be found in nearly every valley, both in the well-exposed strata and in the sediment of streams. I have noticed that after the passage of a sudden storm over the mesa country, and the rapid disappearance of the transient flood, the pools of the arroyos would retain a sediment of clay two or three inches thick, having a consistency perfectly suited to the hand of the potter. This I have taken without tempering and have made imitations of the handsome vases whose remnants I could pick up on all sides. In drying and burning, these vessels were liable to crack and fall to pieces; but I see no reason why, with the use of proper tempering materials, this natural paste might not be successfully employed. It would not be difficult, however, to find the native clay among the sedimentary formations of this district. Usually the clay has been very fine grained, and when used without coarse tempering the vessels have an extremely even and often a conchoidal fracture.
Tempering.—The materials used in tempering do not often come into notice. It appears that, in a majority of cases, fine sand, probably derived from naturally disintegrated rocks, was employed. A large percentage of rather coarse sand is found in the more roughly finished coil-made ware, but vessels intended for smooth finish have little perceptible tempering material.
The speckled appearance of some of the abraded surfaces suggests the use of pulverized potsherds, a practice frequently resorted to by the modern tribes. In some localities, notably in the south, we find a slight admixture of mica, which may have come from the use of pulverized micaceous rock.
Construction.—No one can say just how the materials were manipulated, fashioned into vessels, and baked; yet many facts can be gleaned from a critical examination of the vessels themselves; and an approximate idea of the various processes employed may be formed by a study of the methods of modern potters of the same region or of corresponding grades of culture.
It is evident that the vessels were built and finished by the hands alone; no wheel was used, although supports, such as shallow earthen vessels, baskets, and gourds were certainly employed to a considerable extent. Primitive processes of building have varied considerably. The simplest method perhaps was that of shaping a single mass of clay by pressure with the fingers, either with or without the assistance of a mold or support. The mold would be useful in shaping shallow vessels, such as plates, cups, and bowls. The walls of vessels of eccentric forms or having constricted apertures would be carried upward by the addition of small more or less elongated masses of clay, with no support but the hand or an implement held in the hand. Casting proper, in regularly constructed molds, was practiced only by the more cultured races, such as the Peruvians. A variety of methods may have been employed in the construction of a single piece.
Surface Finish.—A great deal of attention was given to surface finish. In the coiled ware the imbricate edges of the fillets were generally either smoothed down and obliterated entirely, or treated in such a way as to give a variety of pleasing effects of relief decoration. Vessels with smooth surfaces, whether built by coiling, modeling, or molding, very often received a thin coat of fine liquid clay, probably after partial drying and polishing. This took the place of the enamels used by more accomplished potters, and being usually white, it gave a beautiful surface upon which to execute designs in color. Before the color was applied the surface received a considerable degree of polish by rubbing with a suitable implement of stone or other material. Attention was given chiefly to surfaces exposed to view—the interior of bowls and the exterior of narrow-necked vases.
Firing.—The firing of the ancient ware seems to have been carefully and successfully accomplished. The methods probably did not differ greatly from those practiced by the modern Pueblo tribes. The ware is, as a rule, light in color, but is generally much clouded by the dark spots that result from imperfections in the methods of applying the fire. The heat was rarely great enough to produce anything like vitrifaction of the surface, and the paste is seldom as hard as our stone ware.
Glaze.—A great deal has been said about the glaze of native American wares, which exists, if at all, through accident. The surface of the white ware of nearly all sections received a high degree of mechanical polish, and the effect of firing was often to heighten this and give at times a slightly translucent effect; a result of the spreading or sinking of the coloring matter of the designs.
Hardness.—The paste exposed in fractured edges can be scratched with a steel point, and often with ease. Some of the white pottery of ancient Tusayan can be carved almost as readily as chalk or sun-dried clay. At the same time all localities furnish occasionally specimens that through the accidents of firing have the ring and hardness of stoneware. The ancient pottery is generally superior in hardness to that produced by the historic tribes.
Color.