THE
SUBTERRANEAN WORLD.

^{The Eternal Strife between Water and Fire—Strata of Aqueous Origin—Tabular View of their Chronological Succession—Enormous Time required for their Formation—Igneous Action—Metamorphic Rocks—Upheaval and Depression—-Fossils—Uninterrupted Succession of Organic Life}

_Page 1

^{General Remarks—Eozoon Canadense—Trilobites—Brachiopods—Pterichthys Milleri—Oldest Reptiles—Wonderful Preservation of Colour in Petrified Shells—Primæval Corals and Sponges—Sea-lilies—Orthoceratites and Ammonites—-Belemnites—Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus—Pterodactyli—Iguanodon—Tertiary Quadrupeds—Dinotherium—Colossochelys Atlas—Megatherium—Mylodon—Glyptodon—Mammoth—Mastodon—Sivatherium Giganteum—Fossil Ripple-marks, Rain-drops, and Footprints—Harmony has reigned from the beginning}

8

^{Zone of invariable Temperature—Increasing Temperature of the Earth at a greater Depth—Proofs found in Mines and Artesian Wells, in Hot Springs and Volcanic Eruptions—The whole Earth probably at one time a fluid mass}

31

^{Oscillations of the Earth’s Surface taking place in the present day—First ascertained in Sweden—Examples of Contemporaneous Upheaval and Depression in France and England—Probable Causes of the Phenomenon}

34

^{Subterranean Distribution of the Waters—Admirable Provisions of Nature—Hydrostatic Laws regulating the Flow of Springs—Thermal Springs—Intermittent Springs—The Geysir—Bunsen’s Theory—Artesian Wells—Le Puits de Grenelle—Deep Borings—Various Uses of Artesian Wells—Artesian Wells in Venice and in the Desert of Sahara}

39

^{Volcanic Mountains—Extinct and active Craters—Their Size—Dangerous Crater-explorations—Dr. Judd in the Kilauea Pit—Extinct Craters—Their Beauty—The Crater of Mount Vultur in Apulia—Volcanoes still constantly forming—Jorullo and Isalco—Submarine Volcanoes—Sabrina and Graham’s Island—Santorin—Number of Volcanoes—Their Distribution—Volcanoes in a constant state of eruption—Stromboli—Fumaroles—The Lava-lakes of Kilauea—Volcanic Paroxysms—Column of Smoke and Ashes—Detonations—Explosion of Cones—Disastrous Effects of Showers of Ashes and Lapilli—Mud Streams—Fish disgorged from Volcanic Caverns—Eruptions of Lava—Parasitic Cones—Phenomena attending the Flow of a Lava Stream—Baron Papalardo—Meeting of Lava and Water—Scoriæ—Lava and Ice—Vast Dimensions of several Lava Streams—Scenes of Desolation—Volcanoes considered as Safety-valves—Probable Causes of Volcanoes}

53

^{State of Vesuvius before the eruption in the year 79} A.C.^{—Spartacus—Premonitory Earthquakes—Letter of Pliny the Younger to Tacitus, relating the death of his uncle, Pliny the Elder—Benevolence of the Emperor Titus—Herculaneum and Pompeii buried under a muddy alluvium—Herculaneum first discovered in 1713}

81

^{Carbonic-acid Springs—Grotto del Cane—The Valley of Death in Java—Exaggerated Descriptions—Carburetted Hydrogen Springs—The Holy Fires of Baku—Description of the Temple—Mud Volcanoes—The Macaluba in Sicily—Crimean Mud Volcanoes—Volcanic Origin of Mud Volcanoes}

88

^{Extent of Misery inflicted by great Earthquakes—Earthquake Regions—Earthquakes in England—Great Number of Earthquakes—Vertical and Undulatory Shocks—Warnings of Earthquakes—Sounds attending Earthquakes—Remarkable Displacements of Objects—Extent and Force of Seismic Wave Motion—Effects of Earthquakes on the Sea—Enormous Waves on Coasts—Oscillations of the Ocean—Fissures, Landslips, and shattering Falls of Rock caused by Earthquakes—Causes of Earthquakes—Probable Depth of Focus—Opinions of Sir Charles Lyell and Mr. Poulett Scrope—Impressions produced on Man and Animals by Earthquakes}

97

^{A dreadful All Saints’ Day—The Victims of a Minute—Report of an Eye-witness—Conflagration—Banditti—Pombal brings Chaos into Order—Intrigues of the Jesuits—Damages caused by the Earthquake in other places; at Cadiz; in Barbary—Widespread Alarm—Remarks of Goethe on the Earthquake}

114

^{Igneous and Aqueous Causes of Landslips—Fall of the Diablerets in 1714 and 1749—Escape of a Peasant from his living Tomb—Vitaliano Donati on the Fall of a Mountain near Sallenches—The Destruction of Goldau in 1806—Wonderful Preservation of a Child—Burial of Velleja and Tauretunum, of Plürs and Scilano—Landslip near Axmouth in Dorsetshire—Falling in of Cavern-roofs—Dollinas and Jamas in Carniola and Dalmatia—Bursting of Bogs—Crateriform Hollows in the Eifel}

121

^{Their various Forms—Natural Tunnels—The Ventanillas of Gualgayoc—Eimeo—Torgatten—Hole in the Mürtschenstock—The Trebich Cave—Grotto of Antiparos—Vast Dimensions of the Cave of Adelsberg and of the Mammoth Cave—Discovery of Baumann’s Cave—Limestone Caves—Causes of their Excavation—Stalactites and Stalagmites—Their Origin—Variety of Forms—Marine Caves—Shetland—Fingal’s Cave—The Azure Cave—Cave under Bonifacio—Grotta di Nettuno, near Syracuse—The Bufador of Papa Luna—Volcanic Caves—The Fossa della Palomba—Caves of San Miguel—The Surtshellir}

133

^{The Fountain of Vaucluse—The Fontaine-sans-fond—The Katabothra in Morea—Subterranean Rivers in Carniola—Subterranean Navigation of the Poik in the Cave of Planina—‘The Stalactital Paradise’—The Piuka Jama}

149

^{Subterranean Vegetation—Fungi—Enormous Fungus in a Tunnel near Doncaster—Artificial Mushroom-beds near Paris—Subterranean Animals—The Guacharo—Wholesale Slaughter—Insects in the Cave of Adelsberg—The Leptodirus and the Blothrus—The Stalita tænaria—The Olm or Proteus—The Lake of Cirknitz—The Archduke Ferdinand and Charon—The Blind Rat and the Blind Fish of the Mammoth Cave}

156

^{The Cave of Adullam—Mahomet in the Cave of Thaur—The Cave of Longara—The Cave of Egg—The Caves of Rathlin—The Cave of Yeermalik—The Caves of Grenada—Aben Aboo, the Morisco King—The Caves of Gortyna and Melidoni—Atrocities of French Warfare in Algeria—The Caves of the Dahra—The Cave of Shelas—St. Arnaud}

169

^{St. Paul of Thebes—St. Anthony—His visit to Alexandria, and death—Numerous Cave Hermits in the East—St. Benedict in the Cave of Subiaco—St. Cuthbert—St. Beatus—Rock Temples of Kanara—The Wonders of Ellora—Ipsamboul—Rock Churches of Lalibala in Abyssinia—The Cave of Trophonios—The Grotto of St. Rosolia near Palermo—The Chapel of Agios Niketas in Greece—The Chapel of Oberstein on the Nahe—The repentant fratricide}

178

^{Ice-caves of St. Georges and St. Livres—Beautiful Ice-stalagmites in the Cave of La Baume—The Schafloch—Ice Cataract in the Upper Glacière of St. Livres—Ice Cavern of Eisenerz—The Cave of Yeermalik—Volcanic Ice-caves—Æolian Caverns of Terni—Causes of the low temperature of Ice-caves}

192

^{Biban-el-Moluk, the Royal Tombs of Thebes—The Roman Catacombs—Their Extent—Their Mode of Excavation—Touching Sepulchral Inscriptions—Antony Bosio, the Columbus of the Catacombs—The Cavaliere di Rossi—The Catacombs of Naples and Syracuse—The Catacombs of Paris}

202

^{The Cave Hyena and the Cave Bear—The Cavern of Kirkdale—The Moa Caves in New Zealand—Various Species of Moas—Their enormous size}

213

^{The Peat Mosses of Denmark—Shell-Mounds—Swiss Lacustrine Dwellings—Ancient Mounds in the Valley of the Mississippi—The Caves in the Valley of the Meuse—Dr. Schmerling—Human Skulls in the Cave of Engis—Explorations of Sir Charles Lyell in the Cave of Engihoul—Caverns of Brixham—Caves of Gower—The Sepulchral Grotto of Aurignac—Flint Implements discovered in the Valley of the Somme—Gray’s Inn Lane an ancient Hunting-Ground for Mammoths}

221

^{Cave Dwellings in the Val d’Ispica—The Sicanians—Cannibal Caves in South Africa—The Rock City of the Themud—Legendary Tale of its Destruction}

232

^{Subterranean London—The Mont Cenis Tunnel—Its Length—Ingenious Boring Apparatus—The Grotto of the Pausilippo—The Tomb of Virgil}

237

^{Perils of the Miner’s Life—Number of Casualties in British and Foreign Coal Mines—Life in a Mine—Occurrence of Ores—Extent and Depth of Metallic Veins—Mines frequently discovered by Chance—The Divining Rod—Experimental Borings—Stirring Emotions during their Progress—Sinking of Shafts—Precautions against Influx of Water—Expense—Shaft Accidents—Various Methods of working Mineral Substances—Working in Direct and Reverse Steps—Working by Transverse Attacks—Open Quarry Workings—Pillar and Stall System—Long Wall System—Dangerous Extraction of Pillars—Mining Implements—Blasting—Heroes in Humble Life—Firing in the Mine of Rammelsberg—Transport of Minerals Underground—Modern Improvements—Various Modes of Descent—Corfs—Wonderful Preservation of a Girl at Fahlun—The Loop—Safety Cage—Man Machines—Timbering and Walling of Galleries—Drainage by Adit Levels—Remarkable Adits—The Great Cornish Adit—The Georg Stollen in the Hartz—The Ernst August Stollen—Steam Pumps—Drowning of Mines—Irruption of the Sea into Workington Colliery—Hubert Goffin—Irruption of the River Garnock into a Mine—Ventilation of Mines—Upcast Shafts—Fire Damp—Dreadful Explosions—The Safety Lamp—The Choke Damp—Conflagrations of Mines—The Burning Hill in Staffordshire}

244

^{The Golden Fleece—Golden Statues in ancient Temples—A Free-thinking Soldier—Treasures of ancient Monarchs—First Gold Coins—Ophir—Spanish Gold Mines—Bohemian Gold Mines—Discovery of America—Siberian Gold Mines—California—Marshall—Rush to the Placers—Discovery of Gold in Australia—The Chinaman’s Hole—New El Dorados—Alluvial Gold Deposits in California and Australia—Washing—Quartz-crushing}

285

^{Its ancient Discovery—Its Uses among the luxurious Romans—The Mines of Laurium—Silver Mines of Bohemia, Saxony, and Hungary—Colossal Nuggets—Silver Ores—Silver Production of Europe—Mexican Silver Mines—The Veta Madre of Guanaxuato—The Conde de la Valenciana—Zacatecas and Catorce—Adventures of a Steam Engine—La Bolsa de Dios Padre—The Conde de la Regia—Ill-fated English Companies—Indian Carriers—The Dressing of Silver Ores—Amalgamating Process—Enormous Production of Mexican Mines—Potosi—Cerro de Pasco—Gualgayoc—The Mine of Salcedo—Hostility of the Indians—The Monk’s Rosary—Chilian Mines—The Comstock Lode}

297

^{Its valuable Qualities—English Copper Mines—Their comparatively recent Importance—Dreary Aspect of the Cornwall Copper Country—Botallack—Submarine Copper Mines—A Blind Miner—Swansea—Smelting Process—The Mines of Fahlun—their Ancient Records—Alten Fjord—Drontheim—The Mines of Röraas—The Mines of Mansfeldt—Lake Superior—Mysterious Discoveries—Burra Burra—Remarkable Instances of Good Fortune in Copper Mining}

315

^{Tin known from the most remote antiquity—Phœnician Traders—The Cassiterides—Diodorus Siculus—His account of the Cornish Tin Trade—The Age of Bronze—Valuable Qualities of Tin—Tin Countries—Cornish Tin Lodes—Tin Streams—Wheal Vor—A Subterranean Blacksmith—Huel Wherry, a Tin Mine under the Sea—Carclaze Tin Mine—Dressing of Tin Ores—Smelting—The Cornish Miner}

332

^{Iron the most valuable of Metals—Its wide Diffusion over the Earth—Meteoric Iron—Iron very anciently known—Extension of its Uses in Modern Times—British Iron Production—Causes of its Rise—Hot Blast—Puddling—Coal Smelting—The Cleveland District—Rapid Rise of Middlesborough—British Iron Ores—Production of Foreign Countries—The Magnetic Mountain in Russia—The Eisenerz Mountain in Styria—Dannemora—Elba—The United States—The Pilot Knob—The Cerro del Mercado}

345

^{Its Properties and extensive Uses—Alston Moor—Belgian Lead Mines—Galena in America—Extraction of Silver from Lead Ores—Pattinson’s Process—A great part of our wealth is due to the laboratory}

364

^{Not considered as a true Metal by the Ancients—Its Properties and Uses—Almaden—Formerly worked by Convicts—Diseases of the Miners—Idria—Its Discovery—Conflagration of the Mine—Its Produce—Huancavelica—New Almaden}

370

^{Zinc—The Ores, but not the Metal, known to the Ancients—Rapid increase of its Production—Chief Zinc-producing Countries—Platinum—Antimony—Bismuth—Cobalt and Nickel—Wolfram—Arsenic—Chrome—Manganese—Cadmium—Titanium—Molybdenum—Aluminium—Aluminium Bronze—Magnesium—Sodium—Palladium—Rhodium—Thallium}

380

^{The Age of Coal—Plants of the Carboniferous Age—Hugh Miller’s Description of a Coal Forest—Vast Time required for the Formation of the Coal-fields—Derangements and Dislocations—Faults—Their Disadvantages and Advantages—Bituminous Coals—Anthracites—Our Black Diamonds—Advantageous Position of our Coal-Mines—The South Welsh Coal-field—Great Central and Manchester Coal-fields—The Whitehaven Basin and the Dudley Area—Newcastle and Durham Coal-fields—Costly Winnings—A Ball in a Coal-pit—Submarine Coal Mines—Newcastle—View from Tynemouth Priory—Hewers—Cutting Machines—Putters—Onsetters—Shifters—Trapper-boys—George Stephenson—Rise of Coal Production—Probable Duration of our Supply—Prussian Coal Mines—Belgian Coal Mines—Coal Mines in various other countries—Maunch Chunck}

390

^{Formation of Petroleum—Enormous Production of the Pennsylvanian Wells—Asphalte used by the Ancients—Asphalte Pavements—The Pitch Lake of Trinidad—Jet—Its Manufacture in Whitby}

426

^{Geological Position of Rock Salt—Mines of Northwich—Their immense Excavations—Droitwich and Stoke—Wieliczka—Berchtesgaden and Reichenhall—Admirable Machinery—Stassfurt—Processes employed in the Manufacture of Salt—Origin of Rock-salt Deposits}

431

^{Sulphur Mines of Sicily—Conflagration of a Sulphur Mine—The Solfataras of Krisuvick—Iwogasima in Japan—Solfatara of Puzzuoli—Crater of Teneriffe—Alaghez—Büdöshegy in Transylvania—Sulphur from the Throat of Popocatepetl—Sulphurous Springs—Pyrites—Mines of San Domingo in Portugal—The Baron of Pommorão}

441

^{Various Modes of its Collection on the Prussian Coast—What is Amber?—The extinct Amber Tree—Insects of the Miocene Period inclosed in Amber—Formidable Spiders—Ancient and Modern Trade in Amber}

449

^{Alum—Alum Mines of Tolfa—Borax—The Suffioni in the Florentine Lagoons—China-clay—How formed?—Its Manufacture in Cornwall—Plumbago—Emery—Tripolite}

458

^{Carrara—The Pentelikon—The Parian Quarries—Rosso antico and Verde antico—The Porphyry of Elfdal—The Gypsum of Montmartre—The Alabaster of Volterra—The Slate Quarries of Wales—‘Princesses’ and ‘Duchesses’—‘Ladies’ and ‘Fat Ladies’—St. Peter’s Mount near Maestricht—Egyptian Quarries—Haggar Silsilis—The Latomiæ of Syracuse—A Triumph of Poetry}

464

^{Diamonds—Diamond Cutting—Rose Diamonds—Brilliants—The Diamond District in Brazil—Diamond Lavras—The great Russian Diamond—The Regent—The Koh-i-Noor—Its History—The Star of the South—Diamonds used for Industrial Purposes—The Oriental Ruby and Sapphire—The Spinel—The Chrysoberyl—The Emerald—The Beryl—The Zircon—The Topaz—The Oriental Turquoise—The Garnet—Lapis Lazuli—The Noble Opal—Inferior Precious Stones—The Agate-Cutters of Oberstein—Rock Crystal—The Rock-crystal Grotto of the Galenstock}

477

Districts visited by Earthquakes

_{to face page}

60

Of Great Britain, showing the Coal-fields and chief Mining Districts

400

Of America, showing the Coal-fields and Mineral Districts

410

PAGE

^{Carboniferous Forest}

engraved by G. Pearson, to face title

^{Tabular Geological Profile of Strata with corresponding Fossils}

engraved by G. Pearson

3

^{Aqueous Strata disturbed by Igneous Formations}

_{”           ”}

4

Ammonites Henleyi ^{(Middle Lias)}

from Haughton’s ‘Manual of Geology’

9

^Trilobite

from Kemp’s ‘Phasis of Matter’

11

^{Magnified Eye of Trilobite}

_{”           ”}

11

Pterygotus acuminatus ^(Eurypterid)

from Haughton’s ‘Manual of Geology’

12

Spirifer princeps ^(Brachiopod)

_{”           ”}

12

Pterichthys Milleri^{, restored (Old Red Sandstone of Scotland)}

_{”           ”}

14

Ventriculites^{, Fossil Sponge (Chalk)}

_{”           ”}

16

Siphonia costata^{, Fossil Sponge,} (Green ^{Sand, Warminster)}

”           ”

16

Encrinus liliiformis ^{(Muschelkalk, Germany)}

_{”           ”}

17

Pentacrinus briareus

_{”           ”}

17

Marsupites ornatus ^(Chalk)

_{”           ”}

18

Turrilites tuberculatum

_{”           ”}

19

^{Restored Belemnite}

_{”           ”}

19

Ichthyosaurus communis

_{”           ”}

20

Plesiosaurus dolichodeirus ^{(British Museum—found in the Lias of Street, near Glastonbury)}

from Haughton’s ‘Manual of Geology’

21

Glyptodon clavipes

_{”           ”}

25

^{Diagram illustrating action of Syphon}

engraved by G. Pearson

44

^{Section of an Intermittent Spring}

_{”           ”}

45

^{Geysirs of Iceland}

_{”           ”}

46

^{Porous Strata, Artesian Well sunk in the London Basin}

_{”           ”}

49

^{Middle and Valley Lake Craters, Mount Gambier, South Australia}

from Wood’s ‘Australia’ to face page

53

^{Extinct Crater of Haleakala}

from Webb’s ‘Celestial Objects’

57

^{Eruption of Vesuvius, Bay of Naples}

engraved by G. Pearson, to face page

81

^{Mud Volcanoes of Trinidad}

engraved by G. Pearson

94

^{Great Earthquake at Lisbon}

engraved by G. Pearson, to face page

114

^{Axmouth Landslip}

engraved by G. Pearson

128

^{Stalactital Cavern at Aggtelek: the Cave of Borodla}

engraved by G. Pearson, to face page

133

^{Entrance to the Cave of Adelsberg}

engraved by G. Pearson

137

^{Stalactital Cavern in Australia}

from Wood’s ‘Australia’

141

^{Cave under Bonifacio}

from Forester’s ‘Corsica’

145

Leptodirus Höchenwartii

engraved by G. Pearson

163

^The Proteus anguinus

_{”           ”}

165

^{Blind Fish (}Amblyopsis spelæus⁾

_{”           ”}

168

^{Indian Rock-cut Temple}

engraved by G. Pearson, to face page

178

^{Rock Temples of Ajunta (general view)}

engraved by G. Pearson

182

^{Lower Glacière of St. Livres}

from Browne’s ‘Ice Caves’

193

^{Ice Streams in the Upper Glacière of St. Livres}

_{”           ”}

196

^{Entrance to the Glacière of St. Georges}

_{”           ”}

201

^{Gallery with Tombs}

from Northcote and Brownlow’s ‘Roma Sotterranea’

206

^{Cave in Dream Lead Mine, near Wirksworth, Derbyshire}

engraved by G. Pearson

216

^{Boring Machine in the Tunnel, Mont Cenis}

{

taken from the _{‘Illustrated
London News’} by permission

}

238

^{Boring Machine in the Second Working Gallery, Mont Cenis Tunnel}

_{”           ”}

239

^{Process of Boring}

engraved by G. Pearson

251

^{Section of a Lead Mine in Cardiganshire}

{

from _{Ure’s ‘Dictionary of Arts, Manufacture, and Mines’.}

}

252

^{Part of a Colliery laid out in four panels}

_{”           ”}

255

^{General View of Mining Operations}

engraved by G. Pearson

257

^{Tools used by Miners in Cornwall}

{

from _{Ure’s ‘Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines’}

}

258

^{Conveyance of Minerals underground}

engraved by G. Pearson

262

^{Miners descending Shaft in Owen’s Safety Cage}

_{”           ”}

265

^{Timbering of a Mine}

{

from _{Ure’s ‘Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines’}

}

258

^{Transverse Sections of Walled Drain Galleries}

_{”           ”}

269

^{Drainage of a Mine by Adit Levels}

_{”           ”}

269

^{Safety Lamp}

_{”           ”}

280

^{Gold-washing in Australia}

engraved by G. Pearson

292

^{Stamping Mill}

from Ure’s ‘Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines’

306

^{Grinding Mill}

_{”           ”}

307

^{The Botallack Mine, Cornwall}

engraved by G. Pearson

317

^{St. Michael’s Mount, Cornwall}

_{”           ”}

333

^{Blast Furnace}

from Ure’s ‘Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines’

352

^{Pecopteris adiantoides}

from Haughton’s ‘Manual of Geology’

391

^{Sphenopteris affinis}

_{”           ”}

391

^{Lepidodendron elegans}

_{”           ”}

392

^{Asterophyllites comosa}

_{”           ”}

392

^{Sigillaria oculata}

_{”           ”}

392

^{Calamites nodosus}

_{”           ”}

393

^{Coalbeds rendered available by elevation,}

from ‘Our Coal and Our Coal Pits’

397

^{Section of Coal-field south of Malmesbury}

{

from _{Ure’s ‘Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines’}

}

398

^{Coal-basin of Clackmannanshire}

_{”           ”}

403

^{Dudley Coal-field}

from Howitt’s ‘Visits to Remarkable Places’

407

^{Shipping Coal}

_{”           ”}

412

^{Coal Hewers at Work}

engraved by G. Pearson

415

^{Pitch Lake of Trinidad}

engraved by G. Pearson, to face page

429

^{Insects and Vegetable Substances inclosed in Amber,}

engraved by G. Pearson

452

^{Penrhyn Slate Quarry, North Wales}

engraved by G. Pearson, to face page

469