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Foreword

Realizing the Potential of Nanotechnology

What is nanotechnology? It’s a big word: tiny in scale but infinitely immense in possibility. In the Silicon Valley era of tech bubbles and busts, you may have heard nanotechnology bandied about as the new thing, along with biotech, artificial intelligence, private space travel, and more.

But what does nanotechnology mean? Perhaps the most influential early reference to the field we now call nanotechnology was on December 29, 1959. That evening, one of the most famous and beloved physicists of all time, Richard Feynman, gave a dinner lecture at the California Institute of Technology entitled “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom,” where he discussed the potential in our increasing knowledge and ability to manipulate matter:

The principles of physics, as far as I can see, do not speak against the possibility of maneuvering things atom by atom . . . Put atoms down where the chemist says, and so you make the substance.

Feynman’s visionary forecast was before its time; however, excitement about the field truly began to manifest with the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer of IBM in 1981, and the field’s first book, Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology, written in 1986 by K. Eric Drexler. That year, Drexler and Christine Peterson formed the Foresight Institute, a nonprofit think-tank whose purpose is to advance the ethical development of beneficial nanotechnology.

Twenty-five years later, the field has blossomed. Billions of dollars go into nanotechnology research and development every year. More than a hundred major academic institutions, governmental organizations, research facilities, and advocacy groups in the world are dedicated to nanotechnology. We can see cells, atoms, and DNA at the sub-nanometer level with scanning electron and tunneling microscopes, measure and move molecules with atomic force and probe microscopes, “paint” with molecules using dip-pen lithography, and even snip and modify DNA using manmade DNA “walkers.” We have begun putting the first labs on chips, identifying and even killing cancer cells with nanoscale techniques.

We have come so far. But have we reached a truly nanoscale control of matter? As so often happens, humanity has found that the devil is in the details: realizing the dream of molecular- and atomic-level precision is more difficult than its conception. Quantum physics and its mechanical effects become much more important on the nanoscale, and our understanding of the laws of nature at this scale is advancing but by no means fully comprehensive. Even with all our advances to date, processes for building truly precise three-dimensional structures through molecular manufacturing are still in-progress.

Lacking truly accurate understanding and precise application, media and industry have capitalized on the hopes and fears of a naive society fascinated by the potential in health, life extension, space travel, and green energy. Nanotechnology has become a much-hyped magical buzzword that glamorizes — or demonizes — today’s production of imprecise nanoscale blobs.

However, despite real limitations, microscale and nanoscale progress to date is still impressive. The Information Age completely transformed our world by controlling those “blobs” of matter on a micronscale; the average cellular phone in your pocket today has more processing power than machines that filled entire basements in the 1980s. Articles and books that could take months to find can now be downloaded in moments; family members can call their loved ones from remote areas around the world; 911 emergency services can be at your car accident far faster than ever thought possible. Information sharing, communication, and real knowledge propagation that took weeks or months — or even years — can now be achieved faster than ever before because human beings had the courage to understand, develop, and implement new knowledge and technologies.

But this world-changing progress is merely the microscale; time has already started to show that we can do better. And even more is possible. Imagine a world in which a family of four can take a trip to the moon for the price of a Sunday drive — because the materials and fuel are so light, strong, and inexpensively made. Imagine a world in which nanoscale devices can go in and help rebuild your grandmother’s heart, or your own arteries. A world in which chemical pollution no longer exists.

You may think “that sounds like science fiction.” Well, that it is. In 1995, best-selling author Neal Stephenson wrote about this kind of world in a Hugo Award-winning book called The Diamond Age. And that world is truly a different world than the one we live in now. But this kind of grand, forward-thinking vision has always inspired human progress. Ideas are first whispered or hastily scrawled by those starry-eyed dreamers who dare to imagine something more, something better. In the history of human civilization, the curious inventors, the doers, the makers, and the courageous leaders are the ones who dare to try, to understand, to be inspired, to create, to build: to take those far-off dreams and make them real. The road to truly great dreams is often a long one, and humanity almost always takes more time, energy, work, and earnest collaboration than imagined to fully build and travel this road, — especially to travel it well.

Nanotechnology For Dummies, 2nd Edition, guides the reader through a bright path of progress and possibility, on a road that will eventually lead to all that nanotechnology promises. This book also serves as an entrée into the basic concepts, achievements, problems, and prospects in this exciting field. We hope the knowledge will inspire you to help us create a better world.

— Desiree Dudley and Christine Peterson
— Foresight Institute

Introduction

If you are one of the many who has read headlines about nanotechnology and the incredible things it is making possible in our world, you’ve probably bought this book to find out what the fuss is all about. Nanotechnology has been touted as both a Holy Grail of science that can cure all ills and a dangerous manipulation of matter that could cause the end of our world. So just what is nanotechnology and what could it make possible?

Nanotechnology For Dummies, 2nd Edition, helps you get a good grounding in nanotechnology history, concepts, and applications while clearing up some of the hype. As you work your way through its chapters, you will discover some fascinating facts about nanotechnology past, present, and future.

About This Book

Nanotechnology is probably the most promising branch of science today. It holds out the possibility of clean air, cheap energy, and longer life. In fact, almost every industry today is using or considering nano for their business, and most countries have some level of nanotechnology research and development.

Although nanotechnology can be a complex topic, we’ve made every effort to give you a good overview of its many aspects while not driving you to distraction with jargon and technical talk. We explore not only the concepts behind nanotechnology but also how it’s being applied in the real world. We even take several glimpses into the future to explain all the things that nano may help make possible.

If you are looking at nanotechnology as a career, an investment opportunity, or a scientific field of study, or are just curious, this book will provide you with answers.

Finally, because nanotechnology is a fast-moving field, note that we provide updated information for our readers on our web site, www.UnderstandingNano.com.

Foolish Assumptions

While writing this book, we assumed that you would have at least a passing interest in science, but we didn’t assume they you are a scientist. We therefore ried to put things in simple terms and define technical terms when they first appear as well as in a glossary.

We also assumed that most of you have access to the Internet, so we’ve included throughout the book URLs of sites you may want to visit for more information or updates. In case you would prefer not to type the URLs to access these sites, we’ve provided links to each site on our web site at www.UnderstandingNano.com/nanotechnology-links.html.

Finally, we assumed that you want to go right to the information that’s most useful to you, so we wrote this book in a way that doesn’t require you to read it in any particular order. Jump in wherever you like!

How This Book Is Organized

This book is conveniently divided into several handy parts to help you find the information you need.

Part I: Nanotechnology Basics

The chapters in Part I introduce you to nanotechnology: what it is, where it came from, and the people who made key discoveries to advance the science. We also include chapters about nano materials, techniques used in manipulating those materials, and tools that every nanotechnologist should have in his or her nano toolkit.

Part II: Nano Applications

Nanotechnology is a science that has applications in almost every area of life, from health care to manufacturing, space travel to improving our environment. In Part II, we explore what’s being done, developed, or just imagined in various industries and settings.

Part III: Nanotechnology and People

Nanotechnology may be relevant to you in a few keys ways. In Part III, we explore the ethical, safety, and regulatory issues that may have an effect on how you interact with nanotechnology products or processes in your daily life. We also explore the educational and career opportunities you might want to take advantage of to become part of this fascinating field.

Part IV: The Part of Tens

The field of nanotechnology has many players and many resources. In the three chapters in Part IV, we offer an overview of ten great web sites related to nano, ten interesting nanotechnologies, and ten research labs at the forefront of nanotechnology research and development.

Glossary

The glossary puts all the nanotechnology terms we introduce in the book in one spot to give you a handy, alphabetical reference.

Icons Used in This Book

This book, like all For Dummies books, has little icons in the margin. When you see one of the following icons, take heed.

This icon indicates some fascinating statistic or fact about nano that curious readers may want to explore.

Look for this icon to get suggestions of books, web sites, videos, and other sources for additional information on some aspect of nanotechnology.

When updates to a topic may be posted on the online companion web site, this icon reminds you to go there to get the latest info.

This icon points out information that isn’t vital to understanding the topic under discussion but provides interesting technical background or explanations for the more scientifically inclined reader.

Where to Go from Here

Nanotechnology is a fascinating field that holds out promise for our future welfare and well-being. The developments in nano are fascinating, and understanding them provides you with some interesting scientific knowledge in several areas, including physics and chemistry. Dive into this book in whatever fashion you please. If you need to get a grounding in nano basics, start at Chapter 1 and work your way through. Or if a particular topic interests you, use the table of contents to find the chapter that discusses that topic and jump right in. In either case, enjoy the information provided in the chapters of this book as you become one of the nano-savvy.

Please note that some special symbols used in this eBook may not display properly on all eReader devices. If you have trouble determining any symbol, please call Wiley Product Technical Support at 800-762-2974. Outside of the United States, please call 317-572-3993. You can also contact Wiley Product Technical Support at www.wiley.com/techsupport.

Part I

Nanotechnology Basics

In this part . . .

This part starts from square one, explaining all the nanotechnology basics. The chapters here introduce you to nanotechnology: what it is, where it came from, and the people who made key discoveries to advance the science over the last several decades.

Next, we tell you all about the building blocks of nanotechnology. You find out about nanomaterials, techniques used in manipulating those materials, and tools that every nanotechnologist should have in his or her nano toolbox.

If you’re new to nanotechnology, this part gives you a great grounding in everything nano.

Chapter 1

Introduction to Nanotechnology Concepts

In This Chapter

Exploring the definition of nanotechnology

Understanding how nano-sized materials vary from bulk materials

Examining the bottom-up and top-down approaches to nano

Following nano’s role across disciplines and industries

Nanotechnology has been around as a recognized branch of science for only about fifty years, so it’s a baby compared to physics or biology, whose roots go back more than a thousand years. Because of the young age of nanotechnology and our still-evolving understanding of it, defining it is an ongoing process, as you find in this chapter.

In addition, we help you understand nano by comparing it to more familiar concepts, such as atomic structure, and look at how materials change at the nano level.

Finally, the promise nanotechnology holds for the human race ranges from extending our lives by centuries to providing cheap energy and cleaning our air and water. In this chapter, you explore the broad reach that nanotechno-logy has across several scientific disciplines and many industries.

What Is Nanotechnology, Anyway?

To help you understand exactly what nanotechnology is, we start by providing a definition — or two. Then we explore how nano-sized particles compare with atoms.

Pinning down a definition

Nanotechnology is still evolving, and there doesn’t seem to be one definition that everybody agrees on. We know that nano deals with matter on a very small scale: larger than atoms but smaller than a breadcrumb. We know that matter at the nano scale can behave differently than bulk matter. Beyond that, individuals and groups focus on different aspects of nanotechnology as a discipline. Here are a few definitions of nanotechnology for your consideration.

The following definition is probably the most barebones and generally agreed upon:

Nanotechnology is the study and use of structures between 1 nanometer (nm) and 100 nanometers in size.

To put these measurements in perspective, you would have to stack 1 billion nanometer-sized particles on top of each other to reach the height of a 1-meter-high (about 3-feet 3-inches-high) hall table. Another popular comparison is that you can fit about 80,000 nanometers in the width of a single human hair.

The word nano is a scientific prefix that stands for 10–9 or 1 billionth; the word itself comes from the Greek word nanos, meaning dwarf.

The next definition is from the Foresight Institute and adds a mention of the various fields of science that come into play with nanotechnology:

Structures, devices, and systems having novel properties and functions due to the arrangement of their atoms on the 1 to 100 nanometer scale. Many fields of endeavor contribute to nanotechnology, including molecular physics, materials science, chemistry, biology, computer science, electrical engineering, and mechanical engineering.

The European Commission offers the following definition, which both repeats the fact mentioned in the previous definition that materials at the nanoscale have novel properties, and positions nano vis-à-vis its potential in the economic marketplace:

Nanotechnology is the study of phenomena and fine-tuning of materials at atomic, molecular and macromolecular scales, where properties differ significantly from those at a larger scale. Products based on nanotechnology are already in use and analysts expect markets to grow by hundreds of billions of euros during this decade.

This next definition from the National Nanotechnology Initiative adds the fact that nanotechnology involves certain activities, such as measuring and manipulating nanoscale matter:

Nanotechnology is the understanding and control of matter at dimensions between approximately 1 and 100 nanometers, where unique phenomena enable novel applications. Encompassing nanoscale science, engineering, and technology, nanotechnology involves imaging, measuring, modeling, and manipulating matter at this length scale.

The last definition is from Thomas Theis, director of physical sciences at the IBM Watson Research Center. It offers a broader and interesting perspective of the role and value of nanotechnology in our world:

[Nanotechnology is] an upcoming economic, business, and social phenomenon. Nano-advocates argue it will revolutionize the way we live, work and communicate.

Before nano there was the atom

If you remember your high school science class, you know something about atoms, so we’ll take that as our starting point in explaining the evolution of nanotechnology. Figure 1-1 is an illustration of an atom containing positively charged protons and neutral neutrons in the nucleus (center) of the atom, as well as negatively charged electrons in orbit around the nucleus.

The word atom comes from the Greek word for indivisible, atomos. The atomic bomb demonstrated that atoms can indeed be split, but way back in 450 B.C. they were blissfully unaware of such possibilities. In 1803 John Dalton discovered that elements such as water are actually collections of atoms. These collections, called molecules, have different characteristics from the separate atoms (think of two hydrogen atoms combining with one oxygen atom and the wet result of H2O).

Today we recognize that some of Dalton’s original theory of the atom doesn’t hold water. Still, the most important concepts, that chemical reactions involve the joining and separating of atoms and that atoms have unique properties, are the basis of today’s physical science.

The idea that atoms combine to form molecules such as water is key to chemistry, biology, and nanotechnology. The work of Dalton and many other scientists has allowed chemists to develop useful materials, such as plastics, as well as destructive materials, such as explosives. All bulk materials are made up of atoms, so it was necessary to first understand atoms to learn how to make new materials. Scientists could draw conclusions about atoms based on the properties of the materials they produced, even though they couldn’t see inside an atom.

An important point to underscore is that nobody has ever seen the structure of an atom. Even today’s most sophisticated microscopes don’t reveal the details of atoms, just fuzzy pictures of tiny orbs. All the information about the structure of atoms is based on empirical evidence. Scientists determined that each type of atom absorbed different frequencies of light and then used those differences to make a model of the structure of electrons around the nucleus of each atom. Other scientists bombarded atoms with very small high-energy particles and analyzed what type of particles resulted from collisions with the atomic nucleus to guess at what was inside the nucleus of each type of atom. Then scientists did the math and developed a model of each atom to match their results. The way we describe atoms to our high school students today continues to evolve as physicists probe atoms with higher and higher energy particles to provide more details about the components of the atomic nucleus.

So how does all this information about atoms relate to nanotechnology? Nanoparticles (particles whose diameter, width, or length is between 1 nanometer and 100 nanometers) are bigger than atoms and, like atoms, are around us everyday. They are given off by candle flames, wood fires, diesel engines, laser printers, vacuum cleaners, and many other sources. Scientists worked with nanoparticles for centuries before these particles had a name. But unlike atoms — and this is a big difference — we can now see the structure of nanoparticles. This breakthrough came a few decades ago with the advent of electron microscopes. Figure 1-2 shows the structure of some key nanoparticles (such as the DNA molecule in the bottom left) and their size in relation to other materials.

With our understanding of atomic theory and the ability to see things at the nanoscale, we now have knowledge in place that allows us to manipulate matter in ways never before possible.

See Chapter 3 for more about nanoparticles and materials and Chapter 4 for information about how these can be manipulated.

Photo by the United States Department of Energy’s Office of Basic Energy Sciences

Approaching Nanotechnology from Above and Below

How we should use our knowledge of nanoparticles has been a subject of much debate. Nanotechnologists have offered two approaches for fabricating materials or manipulating devices using nanotechnology: top down and bottom up.

Imagine you need to build the tiniest computer chip possible. Using the bottom-up approach, you would use nanotechnology to assemble the chip atom by atom, placing each type of atom in a specific location to build the circuit. With the top-down approach, you would instead create the computer chip by carving away at bulk material — much like a sculptor and his artwork — to create nano-sized features, never dealing with the atomic level of matter.

The top-down method is currently in use to manufacture computer chips as well as other products you use every day. The bottom-up method is in the theoretical stage, with researchers doing initial experiments to develop these techniques.

Nanotechnologists also use a technique called self-assembly, discussed in Chapter 4, to build structures using nanoparticles. Self-assembly involves creating conditions such that atoms and molecules arrange themselves in a specific way to create a material. Some consider this one form of the bottom-up approach.

Understanding How Nano Changes Things

We’ve stated that materials at the nano level have different characteristics than so-called bulk materials. That’s a key concept worthy of a little more explanation.

Nanoparticles are so small they contain just a few atoms to a few thousand atoms, as opposed to bulk materials that might contain many billions of atoms. This difference is what causes nano materials to have unique characteristics, including how they react with other materials, their color, and even how they melt at high temperatures.

In this section, we explore these differences and help you begin to understand the changes they make possible.

Reacting with other elements

One aspect of how nano-sized particles act differently is how they behave in chemical reactions. One of the most interesting examples of this involves gold.

Gold is considered an inert material in that it doesn’t corrode or tarnish (which is why you paid so much for that ring on your finger). Normally, gold would be a silly material to use as a catalyst for chemical reactions because it doesn’t do much. However, break gold down to nanosize (approximately 5nanometers) and it can act as a catalyst that can do things like oxidizing carbon monoxide.

This transformation works as follows. The smaller the nanoparticle, the larger the proportion of atoms at the surface, and the larger proportion of atoms at the corners of the crystal. While in the bulk form, each gold atom (except the small percentage of them at the surface) is surrounded by twelve other gold atoms; even the gold atoms at the surface have six adjacent gold atoms. In a gold nanoparticle a much larger percentage of gold atoms sits at the surface. Because gold forms crystalline shapes, as shown in Figure 1-3, gold atoms at the corners of the crystals are surrounded by fewer gold atoms than those in the surface of bulk gold. The exposed atoms at the corners of the crystal are more reactive than gold atoms in the bulk form, which allows the gold nanoparticles to catalyze reactions.

Changing color

It turns out that gold’s capability to catalyze reactions is not the only thing that changes at the nanoscale. Gold can actually change color depending on the size of the gold particles.

One of the characteristics of metals is that they are shiny because light reflects off their surfaces. This reflectivity has to do with electron clouds at the surface of metals. Because photons of light can’t get through these clouds and therefore aren’t absorbed by the electrons bound to atoms in metals, the photons are reflected back to your eye and you see that shiny bling quality.

In addition to this shininess, metals have different colors because different colors are reflected more strongly than others. Gold and copper, for example, have lower reflectivity for shorter wavelengths, such as blue, than for longer wavelengths, such as yellow, green, and red, causing a gold tone. Silver has a more constant reflectivity across wavelengths, so it reflects all colors, making it seem more like an absence of color (white).

In bulk form, gold reflects light. At the nanoscale, the electron cloud at the surface of a gold nanoparticle resonates with different wavelengths of light depending upon their frequency. Depending on the size of the nanoparticle, the electron cloud will be in resonance with a particular wavelength of lightand absorb that wavelength. A nanoparticle of about 90 nm in size will absorb colors on the red and yellow end of the color spectrum, making the nanoparticle appear blue-green. A smaller-sized particle, about 30 nm in size, absorbs blues and greens, resulting in a red appearance.

Nanotechnologists are debating the possible use of this color-changing characteristic to build sensors in fields such as medicine.

Melting at lower temperatures

Another characteristic that varies at the nano level is the temperature at which a material melts. In bulk form, a material, such as gold, has a certain melting temperature regardless of whether you’re melting a small ring or a bar of gold. However, when you get down to the nanoscale, melting temperatures begin to vary by as much as hundreds of degrees.

Gold nanoparticles melt at relatively low temperatures (~300 degrees celsius for 2.5 nm size) whereas a slab of gold melts at a toasty 1064 °C.

This difference in melting temperature again relates to the number of atoms on the surface and corners of gold nanoparticles. With a greater number of atoms exposed, heat can break down the bond between them and surrounding atoms at a lower temperature. The smaller the particle, the lower its melting point.

Nano Is Everywhere

Nanotechnology is sometimes referred to as a general-purpose technology because in its more advanced stages it will have a significant impact on almost all industries and all areas of society.

Nanotechnology is unlike other scientific disciplines you may be familiar with in its breadth. It pulls in information from physics, chemistry, engineering, and biology to study and use materials at the nano level to achieve various results.

National Nanotechnology Initiative,

Nano is also used in many commercial settings, many of which you’ll hear about in more detail in subsequent chapters. For example, nano materials are used to

Add strength to materials used in products ranging from tennis rackets to windmills

Act as catalysts in chemical manufacturing

Help absorption of drugs into the body

Add stain resistance to fabrics used in clothing

Make medical imaging tools such as MRIs function more accurately

Improve the efficiency of energy sources such as batteries and fuel cells

Purify drinking water and clean up our air

There may even be nanoceramics in your dental implants, taking advantage of the fact that their properties can be adjusted to match the properties of the tissue surrounding them. And just about every electronic gadget you own probably has some type of nanomaterial in it, especially in the chips used in computing devices.

Taking a clue from educators

If you want to find out whether a field involves various disciplines, check out the university programs offered for those interested in the field. What you’ll find is that nanotechnology is such an interdisciplinary field that many educational programs accept students from a range of disciplines.

Mahbub Uddin and Raj Chodhury, in a conference paper on Nanotechnology Education, make this statement about the challenge of providing nanotechnology education: “Nanotechnology is truly interdisciplinary. An interdisciplinary curriculum that encompasses a broad understanding of basic sciences intertwined with engineering sciences and information sciences pertinent to nanotechnology is essential.”

If you’d like to read the full article, go to this URL: www.actionbioscience.org/education/uddin_chowdhury.html.

Various programs at institutions such as Northeastern University, Rice University (see Figure 1-5), and Penn State offer courses and degrees in everything from nanomedicine to nanobusiness. These programs are available to students majoring in such disciplines as Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Chemical Engineering, Mechanical/Industrial Engineering, Electrical/Computer Engineering, Pharmaceutical Sciences, Materials Science and Engineering, Integrative Biosciences, and Applied Chemistry.

It’s clear from these examples that preparing students for a career in nanotechnology can involve knowledge of both nanotechnology and the specialty of their choosing.