Design and Construction of LNG Storage Tanks

Editorial vii

About the Author ix

1 Introduction 1

Reference 3

2 History of Natural Gas Liquefaction 5

2.1 Industrialisation and Energy Demand 5

2.2 The Beginnings of Gas Liquefaction 6

2.3 The First Steps Towards Transport in Ships 9

2.4 Algeria Becomes the First Exporter 11

2.5 Further Development with Peak-Shaving Plants 12

2.6 The First German LNG Tank in Stuttgart 13

2.7 Wilhelmshaven – the Attempt to Establish a German Receiving Terminal 14

2.8 The Liquefaction of Gas in Australia 15

2.9 Pollutant Emissions Limits in the EU 21

References 23

3 Regulations and their Scope of Applicability 25

3.1 History of the Regulations 25

3.2 EEMUA Publication No. 147 and BS 7777 26

3.3 LNG Installations and Equipment – EN 1473 28

3.4 Design and Construction of LNG Tanks – EN 14620 29

3.5 API 620 – the American Standard for Steel Tanks 32

3.6 API 625 – Combining Concrete and Steel 33

3.7 ACI 376 – the American Standard for Concrete Tanks 33

References 34

4 Definitions of the Different Tank Types 37

4.1 Definitions and Development of the Different Types of Tank 37

4.2 Single Containment Tank System 38

4.3 Double Containment Tank System 40

4.4 Full Containment Tank System 40

4.5 Membrane Tank System 44

References 47

5 Performance Requirements and Design 49

5.1 Performance Requirements for Normal Operation 49

5.2 Thermal Design 51

5.3 Hydrostatic and Pneumatic Tests 52

5.4 Soil Survey, Soil Parameters and Permissible Settlement 54

5.5 Susceptibility to Soil Liquefaction 56

References 58

6 Tank Analysis 59

6.1 Requirements for the Analysis of the Concrete Structure 59

6.2 Requirements for the Model of the Concrete Structure 60

6.3 Strut-and-Tie Models for Discontinuity Regions 62

6.4 Liquid Spill 65

6.5 Fire Load Cases 68

6.6 Explosion and Impact 72

References 74

7 Dynamic Analysis 77

7.1 Theory of Sloshing Fluid 77

7.2 Housner’s Method 79

7.3 Veletsos’ Method 81

7.4 Provisions in EN 1998-4, Annex A 82

7.4.1 Hydrodynamic Pressure on Tank 83

7.4.2 Masses and Associated Lever Arms 85

7.5 Seismic Design of LNG Tanks 88

References 92

8 Construction 93

8.1 Construction Phases and Procedures 93

8.1.1 Base Slab 93

8.1.2 Tank Wall 94

8.1.3 Ring Beam 97

8.1.4 Tank Roof 97

8.1.5 Concrete Roof 100

8.2 Wall Formwork 102

8.3 Reinforcement 105

8.4 Prestressing 108

8.5 Tank Equipment (Inclinometers, Heating) 111

8.6 Construction Joints 114

8.7 Curing of Concrete Surfaces 115

References 115

9 Summary 117

Index 119